Advisory Opinion of 22 July 2010

Document Number
141-20100722-ADV-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL LAW

OF THE UNILATERAL
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
IN RESPECT OF KOSOVO

ADVISORY OPINION OF 22 JULY 2010

2010

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES |TS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

CONFORMITE u AU DROIT INTERNATIONAL
DE LA DuCLARATION
UNILATE uRALE D’INDuPENDANCE

RELATIVE AU KOSOVO

AVIS CONSULTATIF DU 22 JUILLET 2010 Official citation:
Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration
of Independence in Respect of Kosovo, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 2010,p.403

Mode officiel de citation:
Conformité au droit international de la déclaration unilatérale
d’indépendance relative au Kosovo, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 2010,p.403

Sales number
ISSN 0074-4441 o
N de vente: 997
ISBN 978-92-1-071107-4 22 JULY 2010

ADVISORY OPINION

ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL LAW
OF THE UNILATERAL
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
IN RESPECT OF KOSOVO

CONFORMITE u AU DROIT INTERNATIONAL
DE LA DuCLARATION
UNILATEuRALE D’INDuPENDANCE
RELATIVE AU KOSOVO

22 JUILLET 2010

AVIS CONSULTATIF TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs

CHRONOLOGY OF THE PROCEDURE 1-16

I. URISDICTION ANDDISCRETION 17-48

A. Jurisdiction 18-28
B. Discretion 29-48

II. COPE AND M EANING OF THEQUESTION 49-56

III. ACTUAL BACKGROUND 57-77
A. Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and the relevant
UNMIK regulations 58-63

B. The relevant events in the final status process prior to
17 February 2008 64-73
C. The events of 17 February 2008 and thereafter 74-77

IV. THE Q UESTION WHETHER THED ECLARATION OFINDEPENDENCE IS
INA CCORDANCE WITH NTERNATIONAL LAW 78-121

A. General international law 79-84
B. Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and the UNMIK
Constitutional Framework created thereunder 85-121

1. Interpretation of Security Council resolution 1244 (194-100

2. The question whether the declaration of independence is
in accordance with Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)
and the measures adopted thereunder 101-121

(a) The identity of the authors of the declaration of inde-
pendence 102-109
(b) The question whether the authors of the declaration
of independence acted in violation of Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) or the measures adopted there-

under 110-121

V. G ENERALC ONCLUSION 122
O PERATIVECLAUSE 123

4 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

2010 YEAR 2010
22 July
General List
No. 141 22 July 2010

ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL LAW
OF THE UNILATERAL

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

IN RESPECT OF KOSOVO

Jurisdiction of the Court to give the advisory opinion requested.
Article 65, paragraph 1, of the Statute — Article 96, paragraph 1, of the
Charter — Power of General Assembly to request advisory opinions — Arti-
cles 10 and 11 of the Charter — Contention that General Assembly acted out-
side its powers under the Charter — Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Charter —
Authorization to request an advisory opinion not limited by Article 12.

Requirement that the question on which the Court is requested to give its
opinion is a “legal question” — Contention that the act of making a declaration
of independence is governed by domestic constitutional law — The Court can
respond to the question by reference to international law without the need to
address domestic law — The fact that a question has political aspects does not
deprive it of its character as a legal question — The Court is not concerned with
the political motives behind a request or the political implications which its
opinion may have.
The Court has jurisdiction to give the advisory opinion requested.

**

Discretion of the Court to decide whether it should give an opinion.
Integrity of the Court’s judicial function — Only “compelling reasons” should
lead the Court to decline to exercise its judicial function — The motives of indi-
vidual States which sponsor a resolution requesting an advisory opinion are not
relevant to the Court’s exercise of its discretion — Requesting organ to assess
purpose, usefulness and political consequences of opinion.

Delimitation of the respective powers of the Security Council and the General

5Assembly — Nature of the Security Council’s involvement in relation to Kos-
ovo — Article 12 of the Charter does not bar action by the General Assembly in
respect of threats to international peace and security which are before the Secu-
rity Council — General Assembly has taken action with regard to the situation
in Kosovo.
No compelling reasons for Court to use its discretion not to give an advisory

opinion.

**

Scope and meaning of the question.
Text of the question in General Assembly resolution 63/3 — Power of the
Court to clarify the question — No need to reformulate the question posed by
the General Assembly — For the proper exercise of its judicial function, the
Court must establish the identity of the authors of the declaration of independ-
ence — No intention by the General Assembly to restrict the Court’s freedom to
determine that issue — The Court’s task is to determine whether or not the decla-
ration was adopted in violation of international law.

**

Factual background.
Framework for interim administration of Kosovo put in place by the Security
Council — Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) — Establishment of the
United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) — Role

of Special Representative of the Secretary-General — “Four pillars” of the
UNMIK régime — Constitutional Framework for Provisional Self-Govern-
ment — Relations between the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government and
the Special Representative of the Secretary-General.
Relevant events in the final status process — Appointment by Secretary-
General of Special Envoy for the future status process for Kosovo — Guiding
Principles of the Contact Group — Failure of consultative process — Compre-
hensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement by Special Envoy — Failure
of negotiations on the future status of Kosovo under the auspices of the Troika —
Elections held for the Assembly of Kosovo on 17 November 2007 — Adoption of
the declaration of independence on 17 February 2008.

**

Whether the declaration of independence is in accordance with international

law.
No prohibition of declarations of independence according to State practice —
Contention that prohibition of unilateral declarations of independence is implicit
in the principle of territorial integrity — Scope of the principle of territorial
integrity is confined to the sphere of relations between States — No general pro-
hibition may be inferred from the practice of the Security Council with regard to
declarations of independence — Issues relating to the extent of the right of self-

6determination and the existence of any right of “remedial secession” are beyond
the scope of the question posed by the General Assembly.

General international law contains no applicable prohibition of declarations
of independence — Declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 did not
violate general international law.

Security Council resolution 1244 and the Constitutional Framework — Reso-
lution 1244 (1999) imposes international legal obligations and is part of the
applicable international law — Constitutional Framework possesses interna-
tional legal character — Constitutional Framework is part of specific legal
order created pursuant to resolution 1244 (1999) — Constitutional Framework
regulates matters which are the subject of internal law — Supervisory powers of
the Special Representative of the Secretary-General — Security Council resolu-
tion 1244 (1999) and the Constitutional Framework were in force and applica-
ble as at 17 February 2008 — Neither of them contains a clause providing for
termination and neither has been repealed — The Special Representative of the
Secretary-General continues to exercise his functions in Kosovo.
Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and the Constitutional Framework
form part of the international law to be considered in replying to the question

before the Court.
Interpretation of Security Council resolutions — Resolution 1244 (1999)
established an international civil and security presence in Kosovo — Temporary
suspension of exercise of Serbia’s authority flowing from its continuing sover-
eignty over the territory of Kosovo — Resolution 1244 (1999) created an
interim régime — Object and purpose of resolution 1244 (1999).

Identity of the authors of the declaration of independence — Whether the dec-
laration of independence was an act of the Assembly of Kosovo — Authors of
the declaration did not seek to act within the framework of interim self-admin-
istration of Kosovo — Authors undertook to fulfil the international obligations
of Kosovo — No reference in original Albanian text to the declaration being the
work of the Assembly of Kosovo — Silence of the Special Representative of the

Secretary-General — Authors of the declaration of independence acted together
in their capacity as representatives of the people of Kosovo outside the frame-
work of the interim administration.

Whether or not the authors of the declaration of independence acted in viola-
tion of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) — Resolution 1244 (1999)
addressed to United Nations Member States and organs of the United Nations —
No specific obligations addressed to other actors — The resolution did not con-
tain any provision dealing with the final status of Kosovo — Security Council
did not reserve for itself the final determination of the situation in Kosovo —
Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) did not bar the authors of the declara-
tion of 17 February 2008 from issuing a declaration of independence — Decla-
ration of independence did not violate Security Council resolution 1244 (1999).

Declaration of independence was not issued by the Provisional Institutions of
Self-Government — Declaration of independence did not violate the Constitu-
tional Framework.
Adoption of the declaration of independence did not violate any applicable
rule of international law.

7 ADVISORY OPINION

Present: President O WADA ; Vice-President TOMKA ; Judges K OROMA ,
A L-KHASAWNEH ,BUERGENTHAL ,S IMMA,A BRAHAM ,K EITH,S EPÚLVEDA-
A MOR ,B ENNOUNA ,SKOTNIKOV ,C ANÇADO TRINDADE ,Y USUF,G REEN-
WOOD ; Registrar COUVREUR .

On the accordance with international law of the unilateral declaration of
independence in respect of Kosovo,

T HE COURT ,
composed as above,

gives the following Advisory Opinion:

1. The question on which the advisory opinion of the Court has been requested
is set forth in resolution 63/3 adopted by the General Assembly of the United
Nations (hereinafter the General Assembly) on 8 October 2008. By a letter
dated 9 October 2008 and received in the Registry by facsimile on 10 Octo-
ber 2008, the original of which was received in the Registry on 15 Octo-

ber 2008, the Secretary-General of the United Nations officially communicated
to the Court the decision taken by the General Assembly to submit the ques-
tion for an advisory opinion. Certified true copies of the English and French
versions of the resolution were enclosed with the letter. The resolution reads as
follows:

“The General Assembly,
Mindful of the purposes and principles of the United Nations,

Bearing in mind its functions and powers under the Charter of the
United Nations,

Recalling that on 17 February 2008 the Provisional Institutions of Self-
Government of Kosovo declared independence from Serbia,

Aware that this act has been received with varied reactions by the Mem-
bers of the United Nations as to its compatibility with the existing inter-
national legal order,
Decides, in accordance with Article 96 of the Charter of the United

Nations to request the International Court of Justice, pursuant to Arti-
cle 65 of the Statute of the Court, to render an advisory opinion on the
following question:

‘Is the unilateral declaration of independence by the Provisional Insti-
tutions of Self-Government of Kosovo in accordance with international
law?’”

2. By letters dated 10 October 2008, the Registrar, pursuant to Article 66,
paragraph 1, of the Statute, gave notice of the request for an advisory opinion
to all States entitled to appear before the Court.
3. By an Order dated 17 October 2008, in accordance with Article 66, para-
graph 2, of the Statute, the Court decided that the United Nations and its
Member States were likely to be able to furnish information on the question.

8By the same Order, the Court fixed, respectively, 17 April 2009 as the time-limit
within which written statements might be submitted to it on the question, and
17 July 2009 as the time-limit within which States and organizations having
presented written statements might submit written comments on the other writ-
ten statements in accordance with Article 66, paragraph 4, of the Statute.

The Court also decided that, taking account of the fact that the unilateral
declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 is the subject of the question
submitted to the Court for an advisory opinion, the authors of the above dec-
laration were considered likely to be able to furnish information on the ques-
tion. It therefore further decided to invite them to make written contributions
to the Court within the same time-limits.
4. By letters dated 20 October 2008, the Registrar informed the United
Nations and its Member States of the Court’s decisions and transmitted to
them a copy of the Order. By letter of the same date, the Registrar informed the
authors of the above-mentioned declaration of independence of the Court’s
decisions, and transmitted to them a copy of the Order.
5. Pursuant to Article 65, paragraph 2, of the Statute, on 30 January 2009
the Secretary-General of the United Nations communicated to the Court a

dossier of documents likely to throw light upon the question. The dossier was
subsequently placed on the Court’s website.
6. Within the time-limit fixed by the Court for that purpose, written state-
ments were filed, in order of their receipt, by: Czech Republic, France, Cyprus,
China, Switzerland, Romania, Albania, Austria, Egypt, Germany, Slovakia,
Russian Federation, Finland, Poland, Luxembourg, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,
United Kingdom, United States of America, Serbia, Spain, Islamic Republic of
Iran, Estonia, Norway, Netherlands, Slovenia, Latvia, Japan, Brazil, Ireland,
Denmark, Argentina, Azerbaijan, Maldives, Sierra Leone and Bolivia.
The authors of the unilateral declaration of independence filed a written con-
tribution. On 21 April 2009, the Registrar communicated copies of the written
statements and written contribution to all States having submitted a written
statement, as well as to the authors of the unilateral declaration of independ-

ence.
7. On 29 April 2009, the Court decided to accept the written statement filed
by the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, submitted on 24 April 2009, after
expiry of the relevant time-limit. On 15 May 2009, the Registrar communicated
copies of this written statement to all States having submitted a written state-
ment, as well as to the authors of the unilateral declaration of independence.
8. By letters dated 8 June 2009, the Registrar informed the United Nations
and its Member States that the Court had decided to hold hearings, opening on
1 December 2009, at which they could present oral statements and comments,
regardless of whether or not they had submitted written statements and, as the
case may be, written comments. The United Nations and its Member States
were invited to inform the Registry, by 15 September 2009, if they intended to
take part in the oral proceedings. The letters further indicated that the authors

of the unilateral declaration of independence could present an oral contribution.

By letter of the same date, the Registrar informed the authors of the uni-
lateral declaration of independence of the Court’s decision to hold hearings,
inviting them to indicate, within the same time-limit, whether they intended to
take part in the oral proceedings.

9 9. Within the time-limit fixed by the Court for that purpose, written com-
ments were filed, in order of their receipt, by: France, Norway, Cyprus, Serbia,
Argentina, Germany, Netherlands, Albania, Slovenia, Switzerland, Bolivia,
United Kingdom, United States of America and Spain. The authors of the uni-
lateral declaration of independence submitted a written contribution regarding
the written statements.

10. Upon receipt of the above-mentioned written comments and written
contribution, the Registrar, on 24 July 2009, communicated copies thereof to
all States having submitted written statements, as well as to the authors of the
unilateral declaration of independence.
11. By letters dated 30 July 2009, the Registrar communicated to the United
Nations, and to all of its Member States that had not participated in the writ-
ten proceedings, copies of all written statements and written comments, as well
as the written contributions of the authors of the unilateral declaration of inde-
pendence.
12. By letters dated 29 September 2009, the Registry transmitted a detailed
timetable of the hearings to those who, within the time-limit fixed for that pur-
pose by the Court, had expressed their intention to take part in the aforemen-
tioned proceedings.

13. Pursuant to Article 106 of the Rules of Court, the Court decided to make
the written statements and written comments submitted to the Court, as well as
the written contributions of the authors of the unilateral declaration of
independence, accessible to the public, with effect from the opening of the oral
proceedings.
14. In the course of hearings held from 1 to 11 December 2009, the Court
heard oral statements, in the following order, by:

for the Republic H.E. Mr. Du∏an T. Batakovic ´, Ph.D. in History, Uni-
of Serbia: versity of Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV), Ambassador of
the Republic of Serbia to France, Vice-Director of
the Institute for Balkan Studies and Assistant Pro-
fessor at the University of Belgrade, Head of Del-

egation,
Mr. Vladimir Djeric ´, S.J.D. (Michigan), Attorney at
Law, Mikijelj, Jankovic ´ & Bogdanovic ´, Belgrade,
Counsel and Advocate,
Mr. Andreas Zimmermann, LL.M. (Harvard), Profes-
sor of International Law, University of Potsdam,
Director of the Potsdam Center of Human Rights,
Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
Counsel and Advocate,
Mr. Malcolm N. Shaw Q.C., Sir Robert Jennings Pro-
fessor of International Law, University of Leicester,
United Kingdom, Counsel and Advocate,

Mr. Marcelo G. Kohen, Professor of International
Law, Graduate Institute of International and Devel-
opment Studies, Geneva, Associate Member of the
Institut de droit international, Counsel and Advo-
cate,
Mr. Sa∏a Obradovic ´, Inspector General in the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, Deputy Head of Delegation;

10for the authors Mr. Skender Hyseni, Head of Delegation,
of the unilateral Sir Michael Wood, K.C.M.G., Member of the English
declaration of Bar Member of the International Law Commission,
independence: Counsel,
Mr. Daniel Müller, Researcher at the Centre de droit
international de Nanterre (CEDIN), University of

Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense, Counsel,
Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Patricia Roberts Harris Research
Professor of Law, George Washington University,
Counsel;
for the Republic H.E. Mr. Gazmend Barbullushi, Ambassador Extraor-
of Albania: dinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of Alba-

nia to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Legal
Adviser,
Mr. Jochen A. Frowein, M.C.L., Director emeritus of
the Max Planck Institute for International Law, Pro-
fessor emeritus of the University of Heidelberg,
Member of the Institute of International Law, Legal
Adviser,
Mr. Terry D. Gill, Professor of Military Law at the
University of Amsterdam and Associate Professor of
Public International Law at Utrecht University,
Legal Adviser;

for the Federal Ms Susanne Wasum-Rainer, Legal Adviser, Federal
Republic of Foreign Office (Berlin);
Germany:

for the Kingdom of H.E. Mr. Abdullah A. Alshaghrood, Ambassador of
Saudi Arabia: the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the Kingdom of the
Netherlands, Head of Delegation;
for the Argentine H.E. Madam Susana Ruiz Cerutti, Ambassador, Legal
Republic: Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Interna-
tional Trade and Worship, Head of Delegation;

for the Republic H.E. Mr. Helmut Tichy, Ambassador, Deputy Legal
of Austria: Adviser, Federal Ministry of European and Interna-
tional Affairs;

for the Republic H.E. Mr. Agshin Mehdiyev, Ambassador and Perma-
of Azerbaijan: nent Representative of Azerbaijan to the United
Nations;
for the Republic H.E. Madam Elena Gritsenko, Ambassador of the

of Belarus: Republic of Belarus to the Kingdom of the Nether-
lands, Head of Delegation;
for the Plurinational H.E. Mr. Roberto Calzadilla Sarmiento, Ambassador
State of Bolivia: of the Plurinational State of Bolivia to the Kingdom
of the Netherlands;

for the Federative H.E. Mr. José Artur Denot Medeiros, Ambassador of
Republic of Brazil: the Federative Republic of Brazil to the Kingdom of
the Netherlands;

11for the Republic Mr. Zlatko Dimitroff, S.J.D., Director of the Interna-
of Bulgaria: tional Law Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Head of Delegation;

for the Republic Mr. Thomas Barankitse, Legal Attaché, Counsel,
of Burundi: Mr. Jean d’Aspremont, Associate Professor, Univer-
sity of Amsterdam, Chargé de cours invité, Catholic
University of Louvain, Counsel;
for the People’s H.E. Madam Xue Hanqin, Ambassador to the Asso-

Republic of China: ciation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Legal
Counsel of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Member
of the International Law Commission, Member of
the Institut de droit international, Head of Delega-
tion;
for the Republic H.E. Mr. James Droushiotis, Ambassador of the
of Cyprus: Republic of Cyprus to the Kingdom of the Nether-
lands,
Mr. Vaughan Lowe Q.C., Member of the English Bar,

Chichele Professor of International Law, University
of Oxford, Counsel and Advocate,

Mr. Polyvios G. Polyviou, Counsel and Advocate;
for the Republic H.E. Madam Andreja Metelko-Zgombic ´, Ambassador,
of Croatia: Chief Legal Adviser in the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and European Integration;

for the Kingdom H.E. Mr. Thomas Winkler, Ambassador, Under-
of Denmark: Secretary for Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, Head of Delegation;

for the Kingdom Ms Concepción Escobar Hernández, Legal Adviser,
of Spain: Head of the International Law Department, Minis-
try of Foreign Affairs and Co-operation, Head of
Delegation and Advocate;
for the United States Mr. Harold Hongju Koh, Legal Adviser, Department
of America: of State, Head of Delegation and Advocate;

for the Russian H.E. Mr. Kirill Gevorgian, Ambassador, Head of the
Federation: Legal Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Head of Delegation;
for the Republic Ms Päivi Kaukoranta, Director General, Legal Serv-
of Finland: ice, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

Mr. Martti Koskenniemi, Professor at the University
of Helsinki;
for the French Ms Edwige Belliard, Director of Legal Affairs, Minis-
Republic: try of Foreign and European Affairs,
Mr. Mathias Forteau, Professor at the University of
Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense;

for the Hashemite H.R.H. Prince Zeid Raad Zeid Al Hussein, Ambassa-
Kingdom of dor of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan to the
Jordan: United States of America, Head of Delegation;

12for the Kingdom Mr. Rolf Einar Fife, Director General, Legal Affairs
of Norway: Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Head of
Delegation;

for the Kingdom Ms Liesbeth Lijnzaad, Legal Adviser, Ministry of For-
of the Nether- eign Affairs;
lands:
for Romania: Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Secretary of State, Ministry of
Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Cosmin Dinescu, Director-General for Legal

Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs;
for the United Mr. Daniel Bethlehem Q.C., Legal Adviser to the For-
Kingdom of Great eign and Commonwealth Office, Representative of
Britain and North- the United Kingdom of Great Britain and North-
ern Ireland: ern Ireland, Counsel and Advocate,
Mr. James Crawford, S.C., Whewell Professor of Inter-
national Law, University of Cambridge, Member of

the Institut de droit international, Counsel and
Advocate;
for the Bolivarian Mr. Alejandro Fleming, Deputy Minister for Europe
Republic of of the Ministry of the People’s Power for Foreign
Venezuela: Affairs;

for the Socialist H.E. Madam Nguyen Thi Hoang Anh, Doctor of Law,
Republic of Director-General, Department of International
Viet Nam: Law and Treaties, Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

15. Questions were put by Members of the Court to participants in the oral
proceedings; several of them replied in writing, as requested, within the pre-
scribed time-limit.
16. Judge Shi took part in the oral proceedings; he subsequently resigned
from the Court with effect from 28 May 2010.

*
* *

I. JURISDICTION AND D ISCRETION

17. When seised of a request for an advisory opinion, the Court must
first consider whether it has jurisdiction to give the opinion requested and
whether, should the answer be in the affirmative, there is any reason why
the Court, in its discretion, should decline to exercise any such jurisdic-
tion in the case before it (Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weap-

ons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I) , p. 232, para. 10; Legal
Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 144, para. 13).

A. Jurisdiction

18. The Court will thus first address the question whether it possesses

13jurisdiction to give the advisory opinion requested by the General Assem-
bly on 8 October 2008. The power of the Court to give an advisory

opinion is based upon Article 65, paragraph 1, of its Statute, which pro-
vides that:

“The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at
the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance
with the Charter of the United Nations to make such a request.”

19. In its application of this provision, the Court has indicated that:
“It is . . . a precondition of the Court’s competence that the advi-

sory opinion be requested by an organ duly authorized to seek it
under the Charter, that it be requested on a legal question, and that,
except in the case of the General Assembly or the Security Council,
that question should be one arising within the scope of the activities
of the requesting organ.” (Application for Review of Judgement

No. 273 of the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1982 , pp. 333-334, para. 21.)

20. It is for the Court to satisfy itself that the request for an advisory
opinion comes from an organ of the United Nations or a specialized
agency having competence to make it. The General Assembly is author-
ized to request an advisory opinion by Article 96 of the Charter, which
provides that:

“1. The General Assembly or the Security Council may request
the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on any
legal question.

2. Other organs of the United Nations and specialized agencies,
which may at any time be so authorized by the General Assembly,
may also request advisory opinions of the Court on legal questions
arising within the scope of their activities.”

21. While paragraph 1 of Article 96 confers on the General Assembly
the competence to request an advisory opinion on “any legal question”,
the Court has sometimes in the past given certain indications as to the

relationship between the question which is the subject of a request for an
advisory opinion and the activities of the General Assembly (Interpreta-
tion of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase,
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 ,p.70; Legality of the Threat or
Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I) ,

pp. 232-233, paras. 11-12; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a
Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.
Reports 2004 (I), p. 145, paras. 16-17).
22. The Court observes that Article 10 of the Charter provides that:

“The General Assembly may discuss any questions or any matters
within the scope of the present Charter or relating to the powers and

14 functions of any organs provided for in the present Charter, and,
except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations to the

Members of the United Nations or to the Security Council or to
both on any such questions or matters.”

Moreover, Article 11, paragraph 2, of the Charter has specifically pro-
vided the General Assembly with competence to discuss “any questions
relating to the maintenance of international peace and security brought

before it by any Member of the United Nations” and, subject again to
the limitation in Article 12, to make recommendations with respect
thereto.
23. Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Charter provides that:

“While the Security Council is exercising in respect of any dispute
or situation the functions assigned to it in the present Charter, the
General Assembly shall not make any recommendation with regard

to that dispute or situation unless the Security Council so requests.”

24. In the present proceedings, it was suggested that, since the Security
Council was seised of the situation in Kosovo, the effect of Article 12,
paragraph 1, was that the General Assembly’s request for an advisory
opinion was outside its powers under the Charter and thus did not fall

within the authorization conferred by Article 96, paragraph 1. As the
Court has stated on an earlier occasion, however, “[a] request for an
advisory opinion is not in itself a ‘recommendation’ by the General
Assembly ‘with regard to [a] dispute or situation’” (Legal Consequences
of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advi-

sory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 148, para. 25). Accordingly,
while Article 12 may limit the scope of the action which the General
Assembly may take subsequent to its receipt of the Court’s opinion (a
matter on which it is unnecessary for the Court to decide in the present
context), it does not in itself limit the authorization to request an advi-

sory opinion which is conferred upon the General Assembly by Arti-
cle 96, paragraph 1. Whether the delimitation of the respective powers of
the Security Council and the General Assembly — of which Article 12 is
one aspect — should lead the Court, in the circumstances of the present
case, to decline to exercise its jurisdiction to render an advisory opinion is
another matter (which the Court will consider in paragraphs 29 to 48

below).
25. It is also for the Court to satisfy itself that the question on which
it is requested to give its opinion is a “legal question” within the meaning
of Article 96 of the Charter and Article 65 of the Statute. In the present
case, the question put to the Court by the General Assembly asks

whether the declaration of independence to which it refers is “in accord-
ance with international law”. A question which expressly asks the Court
whether or not a particular action is compatible with international law

15certainly appears to be a legal question; as the Court has remarked on a
previous occasion, questions “framed in terms of law and rais[ing] prob-

lems of international law . . . are by their very nature susceptible of a
reply based on law” (Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1975, p. 18, para. 15) and therefore appear to be questions of a legal
character for the purposes of Article 96 of the Charter and Article 65 of
the Statute.

26. Nevertheless, some of the participants in the present proceedings
have suggested that the question posed by the General Assembly is not,
in reality, a legal question. According to this submission, international
law does not regulate the act of making a declaration of independence,
which should be regarded as a political act; only domestic constitutional

law governs the act of making such a declaration, while the Court’s juris-
diction to give an advisory opinion is confined to questions of interna-
tional law. In the present case, however, the Court has not been asked to
give an opinion on whether the declaration of independence is in accord-
ance with any rule of domestic law but only whether it is in accordance
with international law. The Court can respond to that question by refer-

ence to international law without the need to enquire into any system of
domestic law.
27. Moreover, the Court has repeatedly stated that the fact that a
question has political aspects does not suffice to deprive it of its character
as a legal question (Application for Review of Judgement No. 158 of the

United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1973, p. 172, para. 14). Whatever its political aspects, the Court cannot
refuse to respond to the legal elements of a question which invites it to
discharge an essentially judicial task, namely, in the present case, an
assessment of an act by reference to international law. The Court has also

made clear that, in determining the jurisdictional issue of whether it is
confronted with a legal question, it is not concerned with the political
nature of the motives which may have inspired the request or the political
implications which its opinion might have (Conditions of Admission of a
State to Membership in the United Nations (Article 4 of the Charter),

Advisory Opinion, 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948 , p. 61, and Legality of
the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (I), p. 234, para. 13).
28. The Court therefore considers that it has jurisdiction to give an
advisory opinion in response to the request made by the General Assem-
bly.

B. Discretion

29. The fact that the Court has jurisdiction does not mean, however,
that it is obliged to exercise it:

“The Court has recalled many times in the past that Article 65,
paragraph 1, of its Statute, which provides that ‘The Court may give
an advisory opinion . . .’ (emphasis added), should be interpreted to

16 mean that the Court has a discretionary power to decline to give an
advisory opinion even if the conditions of jurisdiction are met.”

(Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied
Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
p. 156, para. 44.)

The discretion whether or not to respond to a request for an advisory
opinion exists so as to protect the integrity of the Court’s judicial func-
tion and its nature as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations
(Status of Eastern Carelia, Advisory Opinion, 1923, P.C.I.J., Series B,

No. 5,p.29;Application for Review of Judgement No. 158 of the United
Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1973 ,
p. 175, para. 24; Application for Review of Judgement No. 273 of the
United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1982, p. 334, para. 22; and Legal Consequences of the Construction of a
Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.

Reports 2004 (I), pp. 156-157, paras. 44-45).
30. The Court is, nevertheless, mindful of the fact that its answer to
a request for an advisory opinion “represents its participation in the
activities of the Organization, and, in principle, should not be refused”
(Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania,

First Phase, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 195,0p.71;Difference Relat-
ing to Immunity from Legal Process of a Special Rapporteur of the Commis-
sion on Human Rights, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) ,
pp. 78-79, para. 29; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in
the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports

2004 (I), p. 156, para. 44). Accordingly, the consistent jurisprudence
of the Court has determined that only “compelling reasons” should lead
the Court to refuse its opinion in response to a request falling within its
jurisdiction (Judgments of the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO upon
ComplaintsMadeagainstUnesco,I.C.J.Reports1956 ,p.86; LegalConse-

quences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 156, para. 44).
31. The Court must satisfy itself as to the propriety of the exercise of
its judicial function in the present case. It has therefore given careful con-
sideration as to whether, in the light of its previous jurisprudence, there
are compelling reasons for it to refuse to respond to the request from the

General Assembly.
32. One argument, advanced by a number of participants in the present
proceedings, concerns the motives behind the request. Those participants
drew attention to a statement made by the sole sponsor of the resolution
by which the General Assembly requested the Court’s opinion to the

effect that
“the Court’s advisory opinion would provide politically neutral, yet

judicially authoritative, guidance to many countries still deliberating
how to approach unilateral declarations of independence in line with
international law.

17 .............................

Supporting this draft resolution would also serve to reaffirm a
fundamental principle: the right of any Member State of the United
Nations to pose a simple, basic question on a matter it considers
vitally important to the Court. To vote against it would be in effect
a vote to deny the right of any country to seek — now or in the

future — judicial recourse through the United Nations system.”
(A/63/PV.22, p. 1.)

According to those participants, this statement demonstrated that the
opinion of the Court was being sought not in order to assist the General
Assembly but rather to serve the interests of one State and that the Court
should, therefore, decline to respond.

33. The advisory jurisdiction is not a form of judicial recourse for
States but the means by which the General Assembly and the Security
Council, as well as other organs of the United Nations and bodies spe-
cifically empowered to do so by the General Assembly in accordance with
Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter, may obtain the Court’s opinion

in order to assist them in their activities. The Court’s opinion is given not
to States but to the organ which has requested it (Interpretation of Peace
Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , p. 71). Nevertheless, precisely for that rea-
son, the motives of individual States which sponsor, or vote in favour of,

a resolution requesting an advisory opinion are not relevant to the
Court’s exercise of its discretion whether or not to respond. As the Court
put it in its Advisory Opinion on Legality of the Threat or Use of
Nuclear Weapons,

“once the Assembly has asked, by adopting a resolution, for an advi-

sory opinion on a legal question, the Court, in determining whether
there are any compelling reasons for it to refuse to give such an
opinion, will not have regard to the origins or to the political history
of the request, or to the distribution of votes in respect of the
adopted resolution” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 237, para. 16).

34. It was also suggested by some of those participating in the pro-

ceedings that resolution 63/3 gave no indication of the purpose for which
the General Assembly needed the Court’s opinion and that there was
nothing to indicate that the opinion would have any useful legal effect.
This argument cannot be accepted. The Court has consistently made
clear that it is for the organ which requests the opinion, and not for the

Court, to determine whether it needs the opinion for the proper perform-
ance of its functions. In its Advisory Opinion on Legality of the Threat
or Use of Nuclear Weapons , the Court rejected an argument that it

18should refuse to respond to the General Assembly’s request on the
ground that the General Assembly had not explained to the Court the

purposes for which it sought an opinion, stating that
“it is not for the Court itself to purport to decide whether or not an

advisory opinion is needed by the Assembly for the performance of
its functions. The General Assembly has the right to decide for itself
on the usefulness of an opinion in the light of its own needs.” (I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (I), p. 237, para. 16.)

Similarly, in the Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequences of the
Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory , the Court
commented that “[t]he Court cannot substitute its assessment of the

usefulness of the opinion requested for that of the organ that seeks
such opinion, namely the General Assembly” (I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I),
p. 163, para. 62).
35. Nor does the Court consider that it should refuse to respond to the
General Assembly’s request on the basis of suggestions, advanced by
some of those participating in the proceedings, that its opinion might

lead to adverse political consequences. Just as the Court cannot substi-
tute its own assessment for that of the requesting organ in respect of
whether its opinion will be useful to that organ, it cannot — in particular
where there is no basis on which to make such an assessment — substi-
tute its own view as to whether an opinion would be likely to have an

adverse effect. As the Court stated in its Advisory Opinion on Legality of
the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons , in response to a submission that
a reply from the Court might adversely affect disarmament negotiations,
faced with contrary positions on this issue “there are no evident criteria
by which it can prefer one assessment to another” (Legality of the Threat

or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I) ,
p. 237, para. 17; see also Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Rep-
orts 1975, p. 37, para. 73; and Legal Consequences of the Construc-
tion of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), pp. 159-160, paras. 51-54).

36. An important issue which the Court must consider is whether, in
view of the respective roles of the Security Council and the General
Assembly in relation to the situation in Kosovo, the Court, as the
principal judicial organ of the United Nations, should decline to answer

the question which has been put to it on the ground that the request for
the Court’s opinion has been made by the General Assembly rather than the
Security Council.
37. The situation in Kosovo had been the subject of action by the
Security Council, in the exercise of its responsibility for the maintenance

of international peace and security, for more than ten years prior to the
present request for an advisory opinion. The Council first took action
specifically relating to the situation in Kosovo on 31 March 1998, when it

19adopted resolution 1160 (1998). That was followed by resolutions
1199 (1998), 1203 (1998) and 1239 (1999). On 10 June 1999, the Council

adopted resolution 1244 (1999), which authorized the creation of an
international military presence (subsequently known as “KFOR”) and an
international civil presence (the United Nations Interim Administration
Mission in Kosovo, “UNMIK”) and laid down a framework for the
administration of Kosovo. By resolution 1367 (2001), the Security Council

decided to terminate the prohibitions on the sale or supply of arms est-
ablished by paragraph 8 of resolution 1160 (1998). The Security Council
has received periodic reports from the Secretary-General on the activities
of UNMIK. The dossier submitted to the Court by the Secretary-
General records that the Security Council met to consider the situation in

Kosovo on 29 occasions between 2000 and the end of 2008. Although the
declaration of independence which is the subject of the present request
was discussed by the Security Council, the Council took no action in
respect of it (Security Council, provisional verbatim record, 18 Febru-
ary 2008, 3 p.m. (S/PV.5839); Security Council, provisional verbatim
record, 11 March 2008, 3 p.m. (S/PV.5850)).

38. The General Assembly has also adopted resolutions relating to the
situation in Kosovo. Prior to the adoption by the Security Council of
resolution 1244 (1999), the General Assembly adopted five resolutions on
the situation of human rights in Kosovo (resolutions 49/204, 50/190,

51/111, 52/139 and 53/164). Following resolution 1244 (1999), the Gen-
eral Assembly adopted one further resolution on the situation of human
rights in Kosovo (resolution 54/183 of 17 December 1999) and 15 reso-
lutions concerning the financing of UNMIK (resolutions 53/241, 54/245A,
54/245B, 55/227A, 55/227B, 55/295, 57/326, 58/305, 59/286A, 59/286B,

60/275, 61/285, 62/262, 63/295 and 64/279). However, the broader situa-
tion in Kosovo was not part of the agenda of the General Assembly at
the time of the declaration of independence and it was therefore neces-
sary in September 2008 to create a new agenda item for the consideration
of the proposal to request an opinion from the Court.

39. Against this background, it has been suggested that, given the
respective powers of the Security Council and the General Assembly, if
the Court’s opinion were to be sought regarding whether the declaration
of independence was in accordance with international law, the request
should rather have been made by the Security Council and that this fact
constitutes a compelling reason for the Court not to respond to the

request from the General Assembly. That conclusion is said to follow
both from the nature of the Security Council’s involvement and the fact
that, in order to answer the question posed, the Court will necessarily
have to interpret and apply Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) in
order to determine whether or not the declaration of independence is in

accordance with international law.
40. While the request put to the Court concerns one aspect of a situa-
tion which the Security Council has characterized as a threat to interna-

20tional peace and security and which continues to feature on the agenda of
the Council in that capacity, that does not mean that the General Assem-

bly has no legitimate interest in the question. Articles 10 and 11 of the
Charter, to which the Court has already referred, confer upon the
General Assembly a very broad power to discuss matters within the scope
of the activities of the United Nations, including questions relating to
international peace and security. That power is not limited by the res-

ponsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security which
is conferred upon the Security Council by Article 24, paragraph 1. As the
Court has made clear in its Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequences of
the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory , para-
graph 26, “Article 24 refers to a primary, but not necessarily exclusive,

competence”. The fact that the situation in Kosovo is before the Security
Council and the Council has exercised its Chapter VII powers in respect
of that situation does not preclude the General Assembly from discussing
any aspect of that situation, including the declaration of independence.
The limit which the Charter places upon the General Assembly to protect
the role of the Security Council is contained in Article 12 and restricts the

power of the General Assembly to make recommendations following a
discussion, not its power to engage in such a discussion.
41. Moreover, Article 12 does not bar all action by the General
Assembly in respect of threats to international peace and security which
are before the Security Council. The Court considered this question in

some detail in paragraphs 26 to 27 of its Advisory Opinion on Legal
Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory, in which the Court noted that there has been an increasing ten-
dency over time for the General Assembly and the Security Council to
deal in parallel with the same matter concerning the maintenance of

international peace and security and observed that it is often the case
that, while the Security Council has tended to focus on the aspects of
such matters related to international peace and security, the General
Assembly has taken a broader view, considering also their humanitarian,
social and economic aspects.

42. The Court’s examination of this subject in its Advisory Opinion on
Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Pal-
estinian Territory was made in connection with an argument relating to
whether or not the Court possessed the jurisdiction to give an advisory
opinion, rather than whether it should exercise its discretion not to give
an opinion. In the present case, the Court has already held that Article 12

of the Charter does not deprive it of the jurisdiction conferred by Arti-
cle 96, paragraph 1 (paragraphs 23 to 24 above). It considers, however,
that the analysis contained in the 2004 Advisory Opinion is also pertinent
to the issue of discretion in the present case. That analysis demonstrates
that the fact that a matter falls within the primary responsibility of the

Security Council for situations which may affect the maintenance of
international peace and security and that the Council has been exercising
its powers in that respect does not preclude the General Assembly from

21discussing that situation or, within the limits set by Article 12, making
recommendations with regard thereto. In addition, as the Court pointed

out in its 2004 Advisory Opinion, General Assembly resolution 377A (V)
(“Uniting for Peace”) provides for the General Assembly to make rec-
ommendations for collective measures to restore international peace and
security in any case where there appears to be a threat to the peace,
breach of the peace or act of aggression and the Security Council is

unable to act because of lack of unanimity of the permanent members
(Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Pal-
estinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 150,
para. 30). These considerations are of relevance to the question whether
the delimitation of powers between the Security Council and the General

Assembly constitutes a compelling reason for the Court to decline to
respond to the General Assembly’s request for an opinion in the present
case.
43. It is true, of course, that the facts of the present case are quite
different from those of the Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequences of
the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory . The

situation in the occupied Palestinian territory had been under active con-
sideration by the General Assembly for several decades prior to its deci-
sion to request an opinion from the Court and the General Assembly had
discussed the precise subject on which the Court’s opinion was sought. In
the present case, with regard to the situation in Kosovo, it was the Secu-

rity Council which had been actively seised of the matter. In that context,
it discussed the future status of Kosovo and the declaration of independ-
ence (see paragraph 37 above).
44. However, the purpose of the advisory jurisdiction is to enable
organs of the United Nations and other authorized bodies to obtain

opinions from the Court which will assist them in the future exercise of
their functions. The Court cannot determine what steps the General
Assembly may wish to take after receiving the Court’s opinion or what
effect that opinion may have in relation to those steps. As the preceding
paragraphs demonstrate, the General Assembly is entitled to discuss the

declaration of independence and, within the limits considered in para-
graph 42, above, to make recommendations in respect of that or other
aspects of the situation in Kosovo without trespassing on the powers of
the Security Council. That being the case, the fact that, hitherto, the decla-
ration of independence has been discussed only in the Security Council
and that the Council has been the organ which has taken action with

regard to the situation in Kosovo does not constitute a compelling reason
for the Court to refuse to respond to the request from the General
Assembly.
45. Moreover, while it is the scope for future discussion and action
which is the determining factor in answering this objection to the Court

rendering an opinion, the Court also notes that the General Assembly
has taken action with regard to the situation in Kosovo in the past. As
stated in paragraph 38 above, between 1995 and 1999, the General

22Assembly adopted six resolutions addressing the human rights situation
in Kosovo. The last of these, resolution 54/183, was adopted on 17 Decem-

ber 1999, some six months after the Security Council had adopted resolu-
tion 1244 (1999). While the focus of this resolution was on human rights
and humanitarian issues, it also addressed (in para. 7) the General
Assembly’s concern about a possible “cantonization” of Kosovo. In
addition, since 1999 the General Assembly has each year approved, in

accordance with Article 17, paragraph 1, of the Charter, the budget of
UNMIK (see paragraph 38 above). The Court observes therefore that
the General Assembly has exercised functions of its own in the situation
in Kosovo.

46. Further, in the view of the Court, the fact that it will necessarily
have to interpret and apply the provisions of Security Council resolu-
tion 1244 (1999) in the course of answering the question put by the Gen-
eral Assembly does not constitute a compelling reason not to respond to
that question. While the interpretation and application of a decision of
one of the political organs of the United Nations is, in the first place, the

responsibility of the organ which took that decision, the Court, as the
principal judicial organ of the United Nations, has also frequently been
required to consider the interpretation and legal effects of such decisions.
It has done so both in the exercise of its advisory jurisdiction (see for
example, Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, para-

graph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 175;
and Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council
Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 , pp. 51-54,
paras. 107-116), and in the exercise of its contentious jurisdiction (see for

example, Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Mon-
treal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of
14 April 1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992 , p. 15, paras. 39-41; Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising

from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United
States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April 1992, I.C.J.
Reports 1992, pp. 126-127, paras. 42-44).
47. There is, therefore, nothing incompatible with the integrity of the
judicial function in the Court undertaking such a task. The question is,
rather, whether it should decline to undertake that task unless it is the

organ which has taken the decision that asks the Court to do so. In its
Advisory Opinion on Certain Expenses of the United Nations , however,
the Court responded to the question posed by the General Assembly,
even though this necessarily required it to interpret a number of Security
Council resolutions (namely, resolutions 143, 145 and 146 of 1960 and

161 and 169 of 1961) (Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Arti-
cle 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1962, pp. 175-177). The Court also notes that, in its Advisory Opinion on

23Conditions of Admission of a State to Membership in the United Nations
(Article 4 of the Charter) (I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948 , pp. 61-62), it

responded to a request from the General Assembly even though that
request referred to statements made in a meeting of the Security Council
and it had been submitted that the Court should therefore exercise its dis-
cretion to decline to reply (I.C.J. Pleadings, Conditions of Admission of
a State to Membership in the United Nations (Article 4 of the Charter) ,

p. 90). Where, as here, the General Assembly has a legitimate interest in
the answer to a question, the fact that that answer may turn, in part, on
a decision of the Security Council is not sufficient to justify the Court in
declining to give its opinion to the General Assembly.

48. Accordingly, the Court considers that there are no compelling rea-
sons for it to decline to exercise its jurisdiction in respect of the present
request.

II. SCOPE AND M EANING OF THE Q UESTION

49. The Court will now turn to the scope and meaning of the question
on which the General Assembly has requested that it give its opinion.
The General Assembly has formulated that question in the following

terms:
“Is the unilateral declaration of independence by the Provisional

Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo in accordance with inter-
national law?”

50. The Court recalls that in some previous cases it has departed from
the language of the question put to it where the question was not
adequately formulated (see for example, in Interpretation of the Greco-
Turkish Agreement of 1 December 1926 (Final Protocol, Article IV),
Advisory Opinion, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 16 ) or where the Court

determined, on the basis of its examination of the background to the
request, that the request did not reflect the “legal questions really in
issue” (Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the
WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1980 , p. 89, para. 35).
Similarly, where the question asked was unclear or vague, the Court has

clarified the question before giving its opinion (Application for Review of
Judgement No. 273 of the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advi-
sory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1982 , p. 348, para. 46).
51. In the present case, the question posed by the General Assembly is
clearly formulated. The question is narrow and specific; it asks for the

Court’s opinion on whether or not the declaration of independence is in
accordance with international law. It does not ask about the legal conse-
quences of that declaration. In particular, it does not ask whether or not
Kosovo has achieved statehood. Nor does it ask about the validity or

legal effects of the recognition of Kosovo by those States which have rec-
ognized it as an independent State. The Court notes that, in past requests

24for advisory opinions, the General Assembly and the Security Council,
when they have wanted the Court’s opinion on the legal consequences of

an action, have framed the question in such a way that this aspect is
expressly stated (see, for example, Legal Consequences for States of the
Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa)
notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 ,p.16and Legal Consequences of the Con-

struction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 136). Accordingly, the Court does
not consider that it is necessary to address such issues as whether or not
the declaration has led to the creation of a State or the status of the
actsofrecognitioninordertoanswerthequestionputbytheGeneralAssem-

bly. The Court accordingly sees no reason to reformulate the scope of the
question.
52. There are, however, two aspects of the question which require
comment. First, the question refers to “the unilateral declaration of inde-
pendence by the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo ”
(General Assembly resolution 63/3 of 8 October 2008, single operative

paragraph; emphasis added). In addition, the third preambular para-
graph of the General Assembly resolution “[r]ecall[s] that on
17 February 2008 the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of
Kosovo declared independence from Serbia”. Whether it was indeed the
Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo which promulgated

the declaration of independence was contested by a number of those
participating in the present proceedings. The identity of the authors of
the declaration of independence, as is demonstrated below (paragraphs 102
to 109), is a matter which is capable of affecting the answer to the question
whether that declaration was in accordance with international law. It

would be incompatible with the proper exercise of the judicial function
for the Court to treat that matter as having been determined by the Gen-
eral Assembly.

53. Nor does the Court consider that the General Assembly intended

to restrict the Court’s freedom to determine this issue for itself. The
Court notes that the agenda item under which what became resolu-
tion 63/3 was discussed did not refer to the identity of the authors of the
declaration and was entitled simply “Request for an advisory opinion of
the International Court of Justice on whether the declaration of inde-
pendence of Kosovo is in accordance with international law” (General

Assembly resolution 63/3 of 8 October 2008; emphasis added). The word-
ing of this agenda item had been proposed by the Republic of Serbia, the
sole sponsor of resolution 63/3, when it requested the inclusion of a sup-
plementary item on the agenda of the 63rd session of the General Assem-
bly (Letter of the Permanent Representative of Serbia to the United

Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, 22 August 2008, A/63/195).
That agenda item then became the title of the draft resolution and, in
turn, of resolution 63/3. The common element in the agenda item and the

25title of the resolution itself is whether the declaration of independence is
in accordance with international law. Moreover, there was no discussion

of the identity of the authors of the declaration, or of the difference in
wording between the title of the resolution and the question which it
posed to the Court during the debate on the draft resolution (A/63/
PV.22).
54. As the Court has stated in a different context:

“It is not to be assumed that the General Assembly would . . . seek
to fetter or hamper the Court in the discharge of its judicial func-

tions; the Court must have full liberty to consider all relevant data
available to it in forming an opinion on a question posed to it for an
advisory opinion.” (Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Arti-
cle 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Rep-
orts 1962, p. 157.)

This consideration is applicable in the present case. In assessing whether
or not the declaration of independence is in accordance with interna-
tional law, the Court must be free to examine the entire record and decide

for itself whether that declaration was promulgated by the Provisional
Institutions of Self-Government or some other entity.
55. While many of those participating in the present proceedings made
reference to the opinion of the Supreme Court of Canada in Reference by
the Governor in Council concerning Certain Questions relating to the

Secession of Quebec from Canada ([1998] 2 Supreme Court Reporter
(SCR) 217; 161 Dominion Law Reports (DLR) (4th) 385; 115 Interna-
tional Law Reports (ILR) 536), the Court observes that the question in
the present case is markedly different from that posed to the Supreme
Court of Canada.

The relevant question in that case was:
“Does international law give the National Assembly, legislature or

government of Quebec the right to effect the secession of Quebec
from Canada unilaterally? In this regard, is there a right to self-
determination under international law that would give the National
Assembly, legislature or government of Quebec the right to effect the
secession of Quebec from Canada unilaterally?”

56. The question put to the Supreme Court of Canada inquired whether
there was a right to “effect secession”, and whether there was a rule of

international law which conferred a positive entitlement on any of the
organs named. By contrast, the General Assembly has asked whether the
declaration of independence was “in accordance with” international law.
The answer to that question turns on whether or not the applicable inter-
national law prohibited the declaration of independence. If the Court

concludes that it did, then it must answer the question put by saying that
the declaration of independence was not in accordance with international
law. It follows that the task which the Court is called upon to perform is

26to determine whether or not the declaration of independence was adopted
in violation of international law. The Court is not required by the ques-

tion it has been asked to take a position on whether international law
conferred a positive entitlement on Kosovo unilaterally to declare its
independence or, a fortiori, on whether international law generally con-
fers an entitlement on entities situated within a State unilaterally to break
away from it. Indeed, it is entirely possible for a particular act — such as

a unilateral declaration of independence — not to be in violation of inter-
national law without necessarily constituting the exercise of a right con-
ferred by it. The Court has been asked for an opinion on the first point,
not the second.

III. FACTUAL BACKGROUND

57. The declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 must be con-
sidered within the factual context which led to its adoption. The Court
therefore will briefly describe the relevant characteristics of the frame-
work put in place by the Security Council to ensure the interim admin-

istration of Kosovo, namely, Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and
the regulations promulgated thereunder by the United Nations Mission
in Kosovo. The Court will then proceed with a brief description of the
developments relating to the so-called “final status process” in the years
preceding the adoption of the declaration of independence, before turn-

ing to the events of 17 February 2008.

A. Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999) and the Relevant
UNMIK Regulations

58. Resolution 1244 (1999) was adopted by the Security Council,

acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, on 10 June
1999. In this resolution, the Security Council, “determined to resolve the
grave humanitarian situation” which it had identified (see the fourth pre-
ambular paragraph) and to put an end to the armed conflict in
Kosovo, authorized the United Nations Secretary-General to establish an

international civil presence in Kosovo in order to provide “an interim
administration for Kosovo . . . which will provide transitional admini-
stration while establishing and overseeing the development of provisional
democratic self-governing institutions” (para. 10).
Paragraph 3 demanded

“in particular that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia put an imme-
diate and verifiable end to violence and repression in Kosovo, and

begin and complete verifiable phased withdrawal from Kosovo of all
military, police and paramilitary forces according to a rapid timeta-
ble”.

Pursuant to paragraph 5 of the resolution, the Security Council decided

27on the deployment in Kosovo, under the auspices of the United Nations,
of international civil and security presences and welcomed the agreement

of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to such presences. The powers and
responsibilities of the security presence were further clarified in para-
graphs 7 and 9. Paragraph 15 of resolution 1244 (1999) demanded that
the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) and other armed Kosovo Albanian
groups end immediately all offensive actions and comply with the require-

ments for demilitarization. Immediately preceding the adoption of Secu-
rity Council resolution 1244 (1999), various implementing steps had
already been taken through a series of measures, including, inter alia,
those stipulated in the Military Technical Agreement of 9 June 1999,
whose Article I.2 provided for the deployment of KFOR, permitting

these to
“operate without hindrance within Kosovo and with the authority to
take all necessary action to establish and maintain a secure environ-

ment for all citizens of Kosovo and otherwise carry out its mission”.

The Military Technical Agreement also provided for the withdrawal of
FRY ground and air forces, save for “an agreed number of Yugoslav and
Serb military and police personnel” as foreseen in paragraph 4 of resolu-
tion 1244 (1999).
59. Paragraph 11 of the resolution described the principal responsibili-

ties of the international civil presence in Kosovo as follows:

“(a) Promoting the establishment, pending a final settlement, of
substantial autonomy and self-government in Kosovo, taking
full account of annex 2 and of the Rambouillet accords (S/1999/
648);
(b) Performing basic civilian administrative functions where and

as long as required;
(c) Organizing and overseeing the development of provisional
institutions for democratic and autonomous self-government
pending a political settlement, including the holding of elec-
tions;
(d) Transferring, as these institutions are established, its adminis-

trative responsibilities while overseeing and supporting the
consolidation of Kosovo’s local provisional institutions and
other peace-building activities;

(e) Facilitating a political process designed to determine Kosovo’s

future status, taking into account the Rambouillet accords
(S/1999/648);

28 (f) In a final stage, overseeing the transfer of authority from Kos-
ovo’s provisional institutions to institutions established under

a political settlement . . . ”.
60. On 12 June 1999, the Secretary-General presented to the Security

Council “a preliminary operational concept for the overall organization
of the civil presence, which will be known as the United Nations Interim
Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK)”, pursuant to paragraph 10
of resolution 1244 (1999), according to which UNMIK would be headed
by a Special Representative of the Secretary-General, to be appointed by

the Secretary-General in consultation with the Security Council (Report
of the Secretary-General of 12 June 1999 (United Nations doc. S/1999/
672, 12 June 1999)). The Report of the Secretary-General provided that
there would be four Deputy Special Representatives working within
UNMIK, each responsible for one of four major components (the so-
called “four pillars”) of the UNMIK régime (para. 5): (a) interim civil

administration (with a lead role assigned to the United Nations);
(b) humanitarian affairs (with a lead role assigned to the Office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)); (c) insti-
tution building (with a lead role assigned to the Organization for Security
and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)); and (d) reconstruction (with a

lead role assigned to the European Union).

61. On 25 July 1999, the first Special Representative of the Secretary-
General promulgated UNMIK regulation 1999/1, which provided in its
Section 1.1 that “[a]ll legislative and executive authority with respect to

Kosovo, including the administration of the judiciary, is vested in
UNMIK and is exercised by the Special Representative of the Secretary-
General”. Under Section 3 of UNMIK regulation 1999/1, the laws appli-
cable in the territory of Kosovo prior to 24 March 1999 were to continue
to apply, but only to the extent that these did not conflict with interna-

tionally recognized human rights standards and non-discrimination or
the fulfilment of the mandate given to UNMIK under resolu-
tion 1244 (1999). Section 3 was repealed by UNMIK regulation 1999/25
promulgated by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on
12 December 1999, with retroactive effect to 10 June 1999. Section 1.1 of
UNMIK regulation 1999/24 of 12 December 1999 provides that “[t]he

law applicable in Kosovo shall be: (a) the regulations promulgated by
the Special Representative of the Secretary-General and subsidiary instru-
ments issued thereunder; and (b) the law in force in Kosovo on 22 March
1989”. Section 4, entitled “Transitional Provision”, reads as follows:

“All legal acts, including judicial decisions, and the legal effects of
events which occurred, during the period from 10 June 1999 up to

the date of the present regulation, pursuant to the laws in force dur-
ing that period under section 3 of UNMIK Regulation No. 1999/1
of 25 July 1999, shall remain valid, insofar as they do not conflict

29 with the standards referred to in section 1 of the present regulation
or any UNMIK regulation in force at the time of such acts.”

62. The powers and responsibilities thus laid out in Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) were set out in more detail in UNMIK regulation
2001/9 of 15 May 2001 on a Constitutional Framework for Provisional
Self-Government (hereinafter “Constitutional Framework”), which

defined the responsibilities relating to the administration of Kosovo
between the Special Representative of the Secretary-General and the Pro-
visional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo. With regard to the
role entrusted to the Special Representative of the Secretary-General
under Chapter 12 of the Constitutional Framework,

“[t]he exercise of the responsibilities of the Provisional Institutions

of Self-Government under this Constitutional Framework shall not
affect or diminish the authority of the SRSG to ensure full imple-
mentation of UNSCR 1244 (1999), including overseeing the Provi-
sional Institutions of Self-Government, its officials and its agencies,
and taking appropriate measures whenever their actions are incon-

sistent with UNSCR 1244 (1999) or this Constitutional Framework”.

Moreover, pursuant to Chapter 2 (a), “[t]he Provisional Institutions of
Self-Government and their officials shall . . . [e]xercise their authorities

consistent with the provisions of UNSCR 1244 (1999) and the terms set
forth in this Constitutional Framework”. Similarly, according to the
ninth preambular paragraph of the Constitutional Framework,

“the exercise of the responsibilities of the Provisional Institutions of
Self-Government in Kosovo shall not in any way affect or diminish
the ultimate authority of the SRSG for the implementation of

UNSCR 1244 (1999)”.

In his periodical report to the Security Council of 7 June 2001, the
Secretary-General stated that the Constitutional Framework contained

“broad authority for my Special Representative to intervene and
correct any actions of the provisional institutions of self-government

that are inconsistent with Security Council resolution 1244 (1999),
including the power to veto Assembly legislation, where necessary”
(Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Interim

30 Administration Mission in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/2001/
565, 7 June 2001).

63. Having described the framework put in place by the Security
Council to ensure the interim administration of the territory of Kosovo,

the Court now turns to the relevant events in the final status process
which preceded the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008.

B. The Relevant Events in the Final Status Process Prior to
17 February 2008

64. In June 2005, the Secretary-General appointed Kai Eide, Perma-

nent Representative of Norway to the North Atlantic Treaty Organiza-
tion, as his Special Envoy to carry out a comprehensive review of
Kosovo. In the wake of the Comprehensive Review report he submitted
to the Secretary-General (attached to United Nations doc. S/2005/635
(7 October 2005)), there was consensus within the Security Council that

the final status process should be commenced:

“The Security Council agrees with Ambassador Eide’s overall
assessment that, notwithstanding the challenges still facing Kosovo
and the wider region, the time has come to move to the next phase of
the political process. The Council therefore supports the Secretary-
General’s intention to start a political process to determine Kosovo’s
Future Status, as foreseen in Security Council resolu-

tion 1244 (1999).” (Statement by the President of the Security Coun-
cil of 24 October 2005, United Nations doc. S/PRST/2005/51.)

65. In November 2005, the Secretary-General appointed Mr. Martti
Ahtisaari, former President of Finland, as his Special Envoy for the
future status process for Kosovo. This appointment was endorsed by the
Security Council (see Letter dated 10 November 2005 from the President

of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General, United
Nations doc. S/2005/709). Mr. Ahtisaari’s Letter of Appointment
included, as an annex to it, a document entitled “Terms of Reference”
which stated that the Special Envoy “is expected to revert to the Secre-
tary-General at all stages of the process”. Furthermore, “[t]he pace and
duration of the future status process will be determined by the Special

Envoy on the basis of consultations with the Secretary-General, taking
into account the co-operation of the parties and the situation on the
ground” (Terms of Reference, dated 10 November 2005, as an appendix
to the Letter of the Secretary-General to Mr. Martti Ahtisaari of
14 November 2005, United Nations dossier No. 198).

66. The Security Council did not comment on these Terms of Refer-
ence. Instead, the members of the Council attached to their approval of

31Mr. Ahtisaari’s appointment the Guiding Principles of the Contact Group
(an informal grouping of States formed in 1994 to address the situation

in the Balkans and composed of France, Germany, Italy, the Russian
Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States). Members of the
Security Council further indicated that the Guiding Principles were meant
for the Secretary-General’s (and therefore also for the Special Envoy’s)
“reference”. These Principles stated, inter alia, that

“[t]he Contact Group . . . welcomes the intention of the Secretary-
General to appoint a Special Envoy to lead this process . . .
A negotiated solution should be an international priority. Once
the process has started, it cannot be blocked and must be brought to
a conclusion. The Contact Group calls on the parties to engage in
good faith and constructively, to refrain from unilateral steps and to

reject any form of violence.

.............................
The Security Council will remain actively seized of the matter. The
final decision on the status of Kosovo should be endorsed by the
Security Council.” (Guiding Principles of the Contact Group for a

Settlement of the Status of Kosovo, as Annexed to the Letter Dated
10 November 2005 from the President of the Security Council
addressed to the Secretary-General, United Nations doc. S/2005/
709.)

67. Between 20 February and 8 September 2006, several rounds of
negotiations were held, at which delegations of Serbia and Kosovo

addressed, in particular, the decentralization of Kosovo’s governmental
and administrative functions, cultural heritage and religious sites, eco-
nomic issues, and community rights (Reports of the Secretary-General on
the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, United
Nations docs. S/2006/361, S/2006/707 and S/2006/906). According to the

Reports of the Secretary-General, “the parties remain[ed] far apart on
most issues” (Reports of the Secretary-General on the United Nations
Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, S/2006/707; S/2006/906).

68. On 2 February 2007, the Special Envoy of the Secretary-General

submitted a draft comprehensive proposal for the Kosovo status settle-
ment to the parties and invited them to engage in a consultative process
(recalled in the Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations
Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/2007/
134, 9 March 2007). On 10 March 2007, a final round of negotiations was

held in Vienna to discuss the settlement proposal. As reported by the Sec-
retary-General, “the parties were unable to make any additional progress”
at those negotiations (Report of the Secretary-General on the United

32Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/
2007/395, 29 June 2007, p. 1).

69. On 26 March 2007, the Secretary-General submitted the report of
his Special Envoy to the Security Council. The Special Envoy stated that
“after more than one year of direct talks, bilateral negotiations and
expert consultations, it [had] become clear to [him] that the parties [were]
not able to reach an agreement on Kosovo’s future status” (Letter dated

26 March 2007 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of
the Security Council attaching the Report of the Special Envoy of the
Secretary-General on Kosovo’s future status, United Nations doc. S/2007/
168, 26 March 2007). After emphasizing that his

“mandate explicitly provides that [he] determine the pace and dura-
tion of the future status process on the basis of consultations with
the Secretary-General, taking into account the co-operation of the
parties and the situation on the ground” (ibid., para. 3),

the Special Envoy concluded:

“It is my firm view that the negotiations’ potential to produce any
mutually agreeable outcome on Kosovo’s status is exhausted. No
amount of additional talks, whatever the format, will overcome this
impasse.

.............................
The time has come to resolve Kosovo’s status. Upon careful con-
sideration of Kosovo’s recent history, the realities of Kosovo today

and taking into account the negotiations with the parties, I have
come to the conclusion that the only viable option for Kosovo is
independence, to be supervised for an initial period by the interna-
tional community.” (Ibid., paras. 3 and 5.)

70. The Special Envoy’s conclusions were accompanied by his final-
ized Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement (United
Nations doc. S/2007/168/Add. 1, 26 March 2007), which, in his words, set
forth “international supervisory structures, [and] provide[d] the founda-

tions for a future independent Kosovo” (United Nations doc. S/2007/168,
para. 5). The Comprehensive Proposal called for the immediate conven-
ing of a Constitutional Commission to draft a Constitution for Kosovo
(ibid., Add. 1, 26 March 2007, Art. 10.1), established guidelines concern-
ing the membership of that Commission (ibid., Art. 10.2), set numerous
requirements concerning principles and provisions to be contained in that

Constitution (ibid., Art. 1.3 and Ann. I), and required that the Assembly
of Kosovo approve the Constitution by a two-thirds vote within 120 days
(ibid., Art. 10.4). Moreover, it called for the expiry of the UNMIK man-
date after a 120-day transition period, after which “all legislative and
executive authority vested in UNMIK shall be transferred en bloc to the

governing authorities of Kosovo, unless otherwise provided for in this
Settlement” (ibid., Art. 15.1). It mandated the holding of general and
municipal elections no later than nine months from the entry into force

33of the Constitution (UN doc. S/2007/168/Add. 1, 26 March 2007,
Art. 11.1). The Court further notes that the Comprehensive Proposal for

the Kosovo Status Settlement provided for the appointment of an Inter-
national Civilian Representative (ICR), who would have the final author-
ity in Kosovo regarding interpretation of the Settlement (ibid., Art. 12).
The Comprehensive Proposal also specified that the mandate of the ICR
would be reviewed “no later than two years after the entry into force of

[the] Settlement, with a view to gradually reducing the scope of the pow-
ers of the ICR and the frequency of intervention” (ibid., Ann. IX,
Art. 5.1) and that

“[t]he mandate of the ICR shall be terminated when the Interna-
tional Steering Group [a body composed of France, Germany, Italy,
the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, the United States, the

European Union, the European Commission and NATO] deter-
mine[d] that Kosovo ha[d] implemented the terms of [the] Settle-
ment” (ibid., Art. 5.2).

71. The Secretary-General “fully support[ed] both the recommen-
dation made by [his] Special Envoy in his report on Kosovo’s future
status and the Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement”
(letter dated 26 March 2007 from the Secretary-General addressed to the

President of the Security Council, United Nations doc. S/2007/168). The
Security Council, for its part, decided to undertake a mission to Kosovo
(see Report of the Security Council mission on the Kosovo issue, United
Nations doc. S/2007/256, 4 May 2007), but was not able to reach a deci-
sion regarding the final status of Kosovo. A draft resolution was circu-

lated among the Council’s members (see draft resolution sponsored by
Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom and the United
States, United Nations doc. S/2007/437 Prov., 17 July 2007) but was
withdrawn after some weeks when it had become clear that it would not
be adopted by the Security Council.

72. Between 9 August and 3 December 2007, further negotiations on
the future status of Kosovo were held under the auspices of a Troika
comprising representatives of the European Union, the Russian Federa-
tion and the United States. On 4 December 2007, the Troika submitted
its report to the Secretary-General, which came to the conclusion that,

despite intensive negotiations, “the parties were unable to reach an agree-
ment on Kosovo’s status” and “[n]either side was willing to yield on the
basic question of sovereignty” (Report of the European Union/United
States/Russian Federation Troika on Kosovo, 4 December 2007, annexed
to S/2007/723).

73. On 17 November 2007, elections were held for the Assembly of
Kosovo, 30 municipal assemblies and their respective mayors (Report of

34the Secretary-General on the United Nations Interim Administration
Mission in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/2007/768). The Assembly of

Kosovo held its inaugural session on 4 and 9 January 2008 (Report of the
Secretary-General on the United Nations Interim Administration Mis-
sion in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/2008/211).

C. The Events of 17 February 2008 and Thereafter

74. It is against this background that the declaration of independence

was adopted on 17 February 2008. The Court observes that the original
language of the declaration is Albanian. For the purposes of the present
Opinion, when quoting from the text of the declaration, the Court has
used the translations into English and French included in the dossier sub-
mitted on behalf of the Secretary-General.
In its relevant passages, the declaration of independence states that its

authors were “[c]onvened in an extraordinary meeting on 17 February
2008, in Pristina, the capital of Kosovo” (first preambular paragraph); it
“[r]ecall[ed] the years of internationally-sponsored negotiations between
Belgrade and Pristina over the question of [Kosovo’s] future political
status” and “[r]egrett[ed] that no mutually-acceptable status outcome

was possible” (tenth and eleventh preambular paragraphs). It further
declared that the authors were “[d]etermin[ed] to see [Kosovo’s] status
resolved in order to give [its] people clarity about their future, move
beyond the conflicts of the past and realise the full democratic potential
of [its] society” (thirteenth preambular paragraph).

75. In its operative part, the declaration of independence of 17 Febru-
ary 2008 states:

“1. We, the democratically-elected leaders of our people, hereby

declare Kosovo to be an independent and sovereign state. This dec-
laration reflects the will of our people and it is in full accordance
with the recommendations of UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari
and his Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement.

2. We declare Kosovo to be a democratic, secular and multi-

ethnic republic, guided by the principles of non-discrimination
and equal protection under the law. We shall protect and promote
the rights of all communities in Kosovo and create the conditions
necessary for their effective participation in political and decision-
making processes.

.............................

5. We welcome the international community’s continued support

35 of our democratic development through international presences
established in Kosovo on the basis of UN Security Council resolu-

tion 1244 (1999). We invite and welcome an international civilian
presence to supervise our implementation of the Ahtisaari Plan, and
a European Union-led rule of law mission.

.............................

9. We hereby undertake the international obligations of Kosovo,
including those concluded on our behalf by the United Nations
Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) . . .

.............................

12. We hereby affirm, clearly, specifically, and irrevocably, that
Kosovo shall be legally bound to comply with the provisions con-
tained in this Declaration, including, especially, the obligations for it
under the Ahtisaari Plan . . . We declare publicly that all States are

entitled to rely upon this declaration . . .”

76. The declaration of independence was adopted at a meeting held on
17 February 2008 by 109 out of the 120 members of the Assembly of

Kosovo, including the Prime Minister of Kosovo and by the President of
Kosovo (who was not a member of the Assembly). The ten members of
the Assembly representing the Kosovo Serb community and one member
representing the Kosovo Gorani community decided not to attend this
meeting. The declaration was written down on two sheets of papyrus and

read out, voted upon and then signed by all representatives present. It
was not transmitted to the Special Representative of the Secretary-
General and was not published in the Official Gazette of the Provi-
sional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo.

77. After the declaration of independence was issued, the Republic of
Serbia informed the Secretary-General that it had adopted a decision
stating that that declaration represented a forceful and unilateral seces-
sion of a part of the territory of Serbia, and did not produce legal effects
either in Serbia or in the international legal order (United Nations doc.
S/PV.5839; Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations

Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/2008/
211). Further to a request from Serbia, an emergency public meeting of
the Security Council took place on 18 February 2008, in which Mr. Boris
Tadic´, the President of the Republic of Serbia, participated and
denounced the declaration of independence as an unlawful act which had

been declared null and void by the National Assembly of Serbia (United
Nations doc. S/PV.5839).

36 IV. THE Q UESTION WHETHER THE D ECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

ISIN A CCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL L AW

78. The Court now turns to the substance of the request submitted
by the General Assembly. The Court recalls that it has been asked by
the General Assembly to assess the accordance of the declaration of

independence of 17 February 2008 with “international law” (resolution
63/3 of the General Assembly, 8 October 2008). The Court will first turn
its attention to certain questions concerning the lawfulness of decla-
rations of independence under general international law, against the back-

ground of which the question posed falls to be considered, and Security
Council resolution 1244 (1999) is to be understood and applied. Once this
general framework has been determined, the Court will turn to the
legal relevance of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999), and determine

whether the resolution creates special rules, and ensuing obligations, under
international law applicable to the issues raised by the present request and
having a bearing on the lawfulness of the declaration of independence of
17 February 2008.

A. General International Law

79. During the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,

there were numerous instances of declarations of independence, often
strenuously opposed by the State from which independence was being
declared. Sometimes a declaration resulted in the creation of a new State,
at others it did not. In no case, however, does the practice of States as a
whole suggest that the act of promulgating the declaration was regarded

as contrary to international law. On the contrary, State practice during
this period points clearly to the conclusion that international law con-
tained no prohibition of declarations of independence. During the second
half of the twentieth century, the international law of self-determination

developed in such a way as to create a right to independence for
the peoples of non-self-governing territories and peoples subject to alien
subjugation, domination and exploitation (cf. Legal Consequences for
States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South

West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970),
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 , pp. 31-32, paras. 52-53; East
Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995 , p. 102,
para. 29; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occu-

pied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
pp. 171-172, para. 88). A great many new States have come into existence as
a result of the exercise of this right. There were, however, also instances of
declarations of independence outside this context. The practice of States
in these latter cases does not point to the emergence in international law

of a new rule prohibiting the making of a declaration of independence in
such cases.

37 80. Several participants in the proceedings before the Court have con-
tended that a prohibition of unilateral declarations of independence is

implicit in the principle of territorial integrity.
The Court recalls that the principle of territorial integrity is an impor-
tant part of the international legal order and is enshrined in the Charter
of the United Nations, in particular in Article 2, paragraph 4, which pro-
vides that:

“All Members shall refrain in their international relations from
the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political

independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with
the Purposes of the United Nations.”

In General Assembly resolution 2625 (XXV), entitled “Declaration on
Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and
Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the
United Nations”, which reflects customary international lawM ( ilitary and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaraguva. United States

of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , pp. 101-103,
paras. 191-193), the General Assembly reiterated “[t]he principle that
States shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use
of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any
State”. This resolution then enumerated various obligations incumbent

upon States to refrain from violating the territorial integrity of other sov-
ereign States. In the same vein, the Final Act of the Helsinki Conference
on Security and Co-operation in Europe of 1 August 1975 (the Helsinki
Conference) stipulated that “[t]he participating States will respect the ter-
ritorial integrity of each of the participating States” (Art. IV). Thus, the

scope of the principle of territorial integrity is confined to the sphere of
relations between States.

81. Several participants have invoked resolutions of the Security
Council condemning particular declarations of independence: see, inter

alia, Security Council resolutions 216 (1965) and 217 (1965), concerning
Southern Rhodesia; Security Council resolution 541 (1983), concerning
northern Cyprus; and Security Council resolution 787 (1992), concerning
the Republika Srpska.
The Court notes, however, that in all of those instances the Security
Council was making a determination as regards the concrete situation

existing at the time that those declarations of independence were made;
the illegality attached to the declarations of independence thus stemmed
not from the unilateral character of these declarations as such, but from
the fact that they were, or would have been, connected with the unlawful
use of force or other egregious violations of norms of general interna-

tional law, in particular those of a peremptory character (jus cogens).
In the context of Kosovo, the Security Council has never taken this
position. The exceptional character of the resolutions enumerated above

38appears to the Court to confirm that no general prohibition against uni-
lateral declarations of independence may be inferred from the practice of the

Security Council.

*

82. A number of participants in the present proceedings have claimed,

although in almost every instance only as a secondary argument, that the
population of Kosovo has the right to create an independent State either
as a manifestation of a right to self-determination or pursuant to what
they described as a right of “remedial secession” in the face of the situa-
tion in Kosovo.

The Court has already noted (see paragraph 79 above) that one of the
major developments of international law during the second half of the
twentieth century has been the evolution of the right of self-determina-
tion. Whether, outside the context of non-self-governing territories and
peoples subject to alien subjugation, domination and exploitation, the
international law of self-determination confers upon part of the popula-

tion of an existing State a right to separate from that State is, however, a
subject on which radically different views were expressed by those taking
part in the proceedings and expressing a position on the question. Similar
differences existed regarding whether international law provides for a
right of “remedial secession” and, if so, in what circumstances. There was

also a sharp difference of views as to whether the circumstances which
some participants maintained would give rise to a right of “remedial
secession” were actually present in Kosovo.

83. The Court considers that it is not necessary to resolve these ques-
tions in the present case. The General Assembly has requested the Court’s
opinion only on whether or not the declaration of independence is in
accordance with international law. Debates regarding the extent of the
right of self-determination and the existence of any right of “remedial

secession”, however, concern the right to separate from a State. As the
Court has already noted (see paragraphs 49 to 56 above), and as almost
all participants agreed, that issue is beyond the scope of the question
posed by the General Assembly. To answer that question, the Court need
only determine whether the declaration of independence violated either
general international law or the lex specialis created by Security Council

resolution 1244 (1999).

*

84. For the reasons already given, the Court considers that general

international law contains no applicable prohibition of declarations
of independence. Accordingly, it concludes that the declaration of
independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general international

39law. Having arrived at that conclusion, the Court now turns to the legal
relevance of Security Council resolution 1244, adopted on 10 June 1999.

B. Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999) and the UNMIK
Constitutional Framework Created Thereunder

85. Within the legal framework of the United Nations Charter, nota-
bly on the basis of Articles 24, 25 and Chapter VII thereof, the Security
Council may adopt resolutions imposing obligations under international
law. The Court has had the occasion to interpret and apply such Security
Council resolutions on a number of occasions and has consistently treated

them as part of the framework of obligations under international law
(Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council
Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 ,p .6;
Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Con-
vention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab

Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April
1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992 , p. 15, paras. 39-41; Questions of Interpreta-
tion and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the
Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States
of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April 1992, I.C.J. Reports

1992, pp. 126-127, paras. 42-44). Resolution 1244 (1999) was expressly
adopted by the Security Council on the basis of Chapter VII of the
United Nations Charter, and therefore clearly imposes international legal
obligations. The Court notes that none of the participants has questioned
the fact that resolution 1244 (1999), which specifically deals with the situ-

ation in Kosovo, is part of the law relevant in the present situation.

86. The Court notes that there are a number of other Security Council
resolutions adopted on the question of Kosovo, notably Security Council
resolutions 1160 (1998), 1199 (1998), 1203 (1998) and 1239 (1999); how-

ever, the Court sees no need to pronounce specifically on resolutions of
the Security Council adopted prior to resolution 1244 (1999), which are,
in any case, recalled in the second preambular paragraph of the latter.

*

87. A certain number of participants have dealt with the question
whether regulations adopted on behalf of UNMIK by the Special Rep-
resentative of the Secretary-General, notably the Constitutional Frame-
work (see paragraph 62 above), also form part of the applicable interna-

tional law within the meaning of the General Assembly’s request.
88. In particular, it has been argued before the Court that the Consti-
tutional Framework is an act of an internal law rather than an interna-

40tional law character. According to that argument, the Constitutional
Framework would not be part of the international law applicable in the

present instance and the question of the compatibility of the declaration
of independence therewith would thus fall outside the scope of the Gen-
eral Assembly’s request.
The Court observes that UNMIK regulations, including regula-
tion 2001/9, which promulgated the Constitutional Framework, are

adopted by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the
basis of the authority derived from Security Council resolution 1244
(1999), notably its paragraphs 6, 10, and 11, and thus ultimately from the
United Nations Charter. The Constitutional Framework derives its bind-
ing force from the binding character of resolution 1244 (1999) and thus

from international law. In that sense it therefore possesses an interna-
tional legal character.
89. At the same time, the Court observes that the Constitutional
Framework functions as part of a specific legal order, created pursuant to
resolution 1244 (1999), which is applicable only in Kosovo and the pur-
pose of which is to regulate, during the interim phase established by reso-

lution 1244 (1999), matters which would ordinarily be the subject of
internal, rather than international, law. Regulation 2001/9 opens with the
statement that the Constitutional Framework was promulgated

“[f]or the purposes of developing meaningful self-government in
Kosovo pending a final settlement, and establishing provisional
institutions of self-government in the legislative, executive and judi-
cial fields through the participation of the people of Kosovo in free

and fair elections”.
The Constitutional Framework therefore took effect as part of the

body of law adopted for the administration of Kosovo during the interim
phase. The institutions which it created were empowered by the Consti-
tutional Framework to take decisions which took effect within that body
of law. In particular, the Assembly of Kosovo was empowered to adopt
legislation which would have the force of law within that legal order, sub-

ject always to the overriding authority of the Special Representative of
the Secretary-General.
90. The Court notes that both Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)
and the Constitutional Framework entrust the Special Representative of
the Secretary-General with considerable supervisory powers with regard
to the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government established under the

authority of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kos-
ovo. As noted above (see paragraph 58), Security Council resolution 1244
(1999) envisages “an interim administration for Kosovo . . . which will
provide transitional administration while establishing and overseeing the
development of provisional democratic self-governing institutions”

(para. 10). Resolution 1244 (1999) further states that “the main respon-
sibilities of the international civil presence will include . . . [o]rganizing
and overseeing the development of provisional institutions for demo-

41cratic and autonomous self-government pending a political settlement,
including the holding of elections” (paragraph 11 (c)). Similarly, as

described above (see paragraph 62), under the Constitutional Frame-
work, the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government were to function
in conjunction with and subject to the direction of the Special Repre-
sentative of the Secretary-General in the implementation of Security
Council resolution 1244 (1999).

91. The Court notes that Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and
the Constitutional Framework were still in force and applicable as at
17 February 2008. Paragraph 19 of Security Council resolution 1244
(1999) expressly provides that “the international civil and security

presences are established for an initial period of 12 months, to continue
thereafter unless the Security Council decides otherwise”. No decision
amending resolution 1244 (1999) was taken by the Security Council
at its meeting held on 18 February 2008, when the declaration of independ-
ence was discussed for the first time, or at any subsequent meeting. The
Presidential Statement of 26 November 2008 (S/PRST/2008/44) merely

“welcom[ed] the co-operation between the UN and other international actors,
within the framework of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)” (empha-
sis added). In addition, pursuant to paragraph 21 of Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999), the Security Council decided “to remain actively
seized of the matter” and maintained the item “Security Council resolu-

tions 1160 (1998), 1199 (1998), 1203 (1998), 1239 (1999) and 1244 (1999)”
on its agenda (see, most recently, Report of the Security Council, 1 August
2008-31 July 2009, General Assembly, Official Records, 64th session,
Supplement No. 2, pp. 39 ff. and 132 ff.). Furthermore, Chapter 14.3 of
the Constitutional Framework sets forth that “[t]he SRSG . . . may effect

amendments to this Constitutional Framework”. Minor amendments
were effected by virtue of UNMIK regulations UNMIK/REG/2002/9 of
3 May 2002, UNMIK/REG/2007/29 of 4 October 2007, UNMIK/REG/
2008/1 of 8 January 2008 and UNMIK/REG/2008/9 of 8 February 2008.
Finally, neither Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) nor the Consti-

tutional Framework contains a clause providing for its termination and
neither has been repealed; they therefore constituted the international
law applicable to the situation prevailing in Kosovo on 17 February
2008.

92. In addition, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General
continues to exercise his functions in Kosovo. Moreover, the Secretary-
General has continued to submit periodic reports to the Security Council,
as required by paragraph 20 of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)

(see the most recent quarterly Report of the Secretary-General on the
United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, S/2010/169,
6 April 2010, as well as the preceding Reports S/2008/692 of 24 Novem-

42ber 2008, S/2009/149 of 17 March 2009, S/2009/300 of 10 June 2009,
S/2009/497 of 30 September 2009 and S/2010/5 of 5 January 2010).

93. From the foregoing, the Court concludes that Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) and the Constitutional Framework form part of
the international law which is to be considered in replying to the question
posed by the General Assembly in its request for the advisory opinion.

1. Interpretation of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)

94. Before continuing further, the Court must recall several factors rel-
evant in the interpretation of resolutions of the Security Council. While
the rules on treaty interpretation embodied in Articles 31 and 32 of the
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties may provide guidance, differ-
ences between Security Council resolutions and treaties mean that the

interpretation of Security Council resolutions also require that other fac-
tors be taken into account. Security Council resolutions are issued by a
single, collective body and are drafted through a very different process
than that used for the conclusion of a treaty. Security Council resolutions
are the product of a voting process as provided for in Article 27 of the

Charter, and the final text of such resolutions represents the view of the
Security Council as a body. Moreover, Security Council resolutions can
be binding on all Member States (Legal Consequences for States of the
Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa)
notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opin-

ion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 , p. 54, para. 116), irrespective of whether they
played any part in their formulation. The interpretation of Security
Council resolutions may require the Court to analyse statements by rep-
resentatives of members of the Security Council made at the time of their
adoption, other resolutions of the Security Council on the same issue, as

well as the subsequent practice of relevant United Nations organs and of
States affected by those given resolutions.

*

95. The Court first notes that resolution 1244 (1999) must be read in
conjunction with the general principles set out in annexes 1 and 2 thereto,
since in the resolution itself, the Security Council: “1. Decide[d] that a
political solution to the Kosovo crisis shall be based on the general prin-
ciples in annex 1 and as further elaborated in the principles and other

required elements in annex 2.” Those general principles sought to defuse
the Kosovo crisis first by ensuring an end to the violence and repression
in Kosovo and by the establishment of an interim administration. A

43longer-term solution was also envisaged, in that resolution 1244 (1999)
was to initiate

“[a] political process towards the establishment of an interim
political framework agreement providing for a substantial self-

government for Kosovo, taking full account of the Rambouillet
accords and the principles of sovereignty and territorial integrity of
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the other countries of the
region, and the demilitarization of the KLA” (Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) of 10 June 1999, Ann. 1, sixth principle;

ibid., Ann. 2, para. 8).
Further, it bears recalling that the tenth preambular paragraph of resolu-

tion 1244 (1999) also recalled the sovereignty and the territorial integrity
of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
96. Having earlier outlined the principal characteristics of Security
Council resolution 1244 (1999) (see paragraphs 58 to 59), the Court next
observes that three distinct features of that resolution are relevant for dis-
cerning its object and purpose.

97. First, resolution 1244 (1999) establishes an international civil and
security presence in Kosovo with full civil and political authority and sole
responsibility for the governance of Kosovo. As described above (see
paragraph 60), on 12 June 1999, the Secretary-General presented to the
Security Council his preliminary operational concept for the overall

organization of the civil presence under UNMIK. On 25 July 1999, the
Special Representative of the Secretary-General promulgated UNMIK
regulation 1999/1, deemed to have entered into force as of 10 June 1999,
the date of adoption of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999). Under
this regulation, “[a]ll legislative and executive authority with respect to

Kosovo, including the administration of the judiciary”, was vested in
UNMIK and exercised by the Special Representative. Viewed together,
resolution 1244 (1999) and UNMIK regulation 1999/1 therefore had the
effect of superseding the legal order in force at that time in the territory
of Kosovo and setting up an international territorial administration. For

this reason, the establishment of civil and security presences in Kosovo
deployed on the basis of resolution 1244 (1999) must be understood as an
exceptional measure relating to civil, political and security aspects and
aimed at addressing the crisis existing in that territory in 1999.

98. Secondly, the solution embodied in resolution 1244 (1999), namely,
the implementation of an interim international territorial administration,
was designed for humanitarian purposes; to provide a means for the
stabilization of Kosovo and for the re-establishment of a basic public
order in an area beset by crisis. This becomes apparent in the text of reso-

lution 1244 (1999) itself which, in its second preambular paragraph, recalls
Security Council resolution 1239, adopted on 14 May 1999, in which the
Security Council had expressed “grave concern at the humanitarian crisis

44in and around Kosovo”. The priorities which are identified in
paragraph 11 of resolution 1244 (1999) were elaborated further in the

so-called “four pillars” relating to the governance of Kosovo described
in the Report of the Secretary-General of 12 June 1999 (paragraph 60
above). By placing an emphasis on these “four pillars”, namely, interim
civil administration, humanitarian affairs, institution building and recon-
struction, and by assigning responsibility for these core components to

different international organizations and agencies, resolution 1244 (1999)
was clearly intended to bring about stabilization and reconstruction. The
interim administration in Kosovo was designed to suspend temporarily
Serbia’s exercise of its authority flowing from its continuing sovereignty
over the territory of Kosovo. The purpose of the legal régime established

under resolution 1244 (1999) was to establish, organize and oversee the
development of local institutions of self-government in Kosovo under the
aegis of the interim international presence.

99. Thirdly, resolution 1244 (1999) clearly establishes an interim
régime; it cannot be understood as putting in place a permanent insti-

tutional framework in the territory of Kosovo. This resolution man-
dated UNMIK merely to facilitate the desired negotiated solution for
Kosovo’s future status, without prejudging the outcome of the negotiat-
ing process.
100. The Court thus concludes that the object and purpose of resolu-

tion 1244 (1999) was to establish a temporary, exceptional legal régime
which, save to the extent that it expressly preserved it, superseded the
Serbian legal order and which aimed at the stabilization of Kosovo, and
that it was designed to do so on an interim basis.

2. The question whether the declaration of independence is in accordance
with Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and the measures adopted
thereunder

101. The Court will now turn to the question whether Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999), or the measures adopted thereunder, introduces a
specific prohibition on issuing a declaration of independence, applicable
to those who adopted the declaration of independence of 17 February

2008. In order to answer this question, it is first necessary, as explained in
paragraph 52 above, for the Court to determine precisely who issued that
declaration.

(a) The identity of the authors of the declaration of independence

102. The Court needs to determine whether the declaration of inde-
pendence of 17 February 2008 was an act of the “Assembly of Kosovo”,
one of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government, established under

45Chapter 9 of the Constitutional Framework, or whether those who
adopted the declaration were acting in a different capacity.

103. The Court notes that different views have been expressed regard-
ing this question. On the one hand, it has been suggested in the proceed-
ings before the Court that the meeting in which the declaration
was adopted was a session of the Assembly of Kosovo, operating as a
Provisional Institution of Self-Government within the limits of the

Constitutional Framework. Other participants have observed that both
the language of the document and the circumstances under which it was
adopted clearly indicate that the declaration of 17 February 2008 was
not the work of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government and did
not take effect within the legal framework created for the Government of

Kosovo during the interim phase.
104. The Court notes that, when opening the meeting of 17 February
2008 at which the declaration of independence was adopted, the Presi-
dent of the Assembly and the Prime Minister of Kosovo made reference
to the Assembly of Kosovo and the Constitutional Framework. The
Court considers, however, that the declaration of independence must be

seen in its larger context, taking into account the events preceding its
adoption, notably relating to the so-called “final status process” (see
paragraphs 64 to 73). Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) was mostly
concerned with setting up an interim framework of self-government
for Kosovo (see paragraph 58 above). Although, at the time of the adop-

tion of the resolution, it was expected that the final status of Kosovo
would flow from, and be developed within, the framework set up by the
resolution, the specific contours, let alone the outcome, of the final status
process were left open by Security Council resolution 1244 (1999).
Accordingly, its paragraph 11, especially in its subparagrad)s,(e)and(f),

deals with final status issues only in so far as it is made part of UNMIK’s
responsibilities to “[f]acilitat[e] a political process designed to determine
Kosovo’s future status, taking into account the Rambouillet accords”
and “[i]n a final stage, [to oversee] the transfer of authority from Kos-
ovo’s provisional institutions to institutions established under a political

settlement”.

105. The declaration of independence reflects the awareness of its
authors that the final status negotiations had failed and that a critical
moment for the future of Kosovo had been reached. The preamble of the

declaration refers to the “years of internationally-sponsored negotiations
between Belgrade and Pristina over the question of our future political
status” and expressly puts the declaration in the context of the failure of
the final status negotiations, inasmuch as it states that “no mutually-
acceptable status outcome was possible” (tenth and eleventh preambular

paragraphs). Proceeding from there, the authors of the declaration of
independence emphasize their determination to “resolve” the status of
Kosovo and to give the people of Kosovo “clarity about their future”

46(thirteenth preambular paragraph). This language indicates that the
authors of the declaration did not seek to act within the standard frame-

work of interim self-administration of Kosovo, but aimed at establishing
Kosovo “as an independent and sovereign State” (para. 1). The declara-
tion of independence, therefore, was not intended by those who adopted
it to take effect within the legal order created for the interim phase, nor
was it capable of doing so. On the contrary, the Court considers that the

authors of that declaration did not act, or intend to act, in the capacity of
an institution created by and empowered to act within that legal order
but, rather, set out to adopt a measure the significance and effects of
which would lie outside that order.

106. This conclusion is reinforced by the fact that the authors of the
declaration undertook to fulfil the international obligations of Kosovo,
notably those created for Kosovo by UNMIK (para. 9), and expressly
and solemnly declared Kosovo to be bound vis-à-vis third States by the
commitments made in the declaration (para. 12). By contrast, under the

régime of the Constitutional Framework, all matters relating to the man-
agement of the external relations of Kosovo were the exclusive preroga-
tive of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General:

“(m) concluding agreements with states and international organi-
zations in all matters within the scope of UNSCR 1244 (1999);

(n) overseeing the fulfilment of commitments in international
agreements entered into on behalf of UNMIK;
(o) external relations, including with States and international
organizations . . .” (Chap. 8.1 of the Constitutional Frame-
work, “Powers and Responsibilities Reserved to the SRSG”),

with the Special Representative of the Secretary-General only consulting

and co-operating with the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government in
these matters.
107. Certain features of the text of the declaration and the circum-
stances of its adoption also point to the same conclusion. Nowhere in the
original Albanian text of the declaration (which is the sole authentic text)
is any reference made to the declaration being the work of the Assembly

of Kosovo. The words “Assembly of Kosovo” appear at the head of the
declaration only in the English and French translations contained in the
dossier submitted on behalf of the Secretary-General. The language used
in the declaration differs from that employed in acts of the Assembly of
Kosovo in that the first paragraph commences with the phrase “We, the

democratically-elected leaders of our people . . .”, whereas acts of the
Assembly of Kosovo employ the third person singular.

47 Moreover, the procedure employed in relation to the declaration dif-
fered from that employed by the Assembly of Kosovo for the adoption of

legislation. In particular, the declaration was signed by all those present
when it was adopted, including the President of Kosovo, who (as noted
in paragraph 76 above) was not a member of the Assembly of Kosovo. In
fact, the self-reference of the persons adopting the declaration of inde-
pendence as “the democratically-elected leaders of our people” immedi-

ately precedes the actual declaration of independence within the text
(“hereby declare Kosovo to be an independent and sovereign State”;
para. 1). It is also noticeable that the declaration was not forwarded to
the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for publication in the
Official Gazette.

108. The reaction of the Special Representative of the Secretary-
General to the declaration of independence is also of some significance.
The Constitutional Framework gave the Special Representative power
to oversee and, in certain circumstances, annul the acts of the Provisional
Institutions of Self-Government. On previous occasions, in particular in

the period between 2002 and 2005, when the Assembly of Kosovo took
initiatives to promote the independence of Kosovo, the Special Repre-
sentative had qualified a number of acts as being incompatible with the
Constitutional Framework on the grounds that they were deemed to be
“beyond the scope of [the Assembly’s] competencies” (United Nations

dossier No. 189, 7 February 2003) and therefore outside the powers of
the Assembly of Kosovo.
The silence of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General in
the face of the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 suggests
that he did not consider that the declaration was an act of the Provisional

Institutions of Self-Government designed to take effect within the legal
order for the supervision of which he was responsible. As the practice
shows, he would have been under a duty to take action with regard to
acts of the Assembly of Kosovo which he considered to be ultra vires.

The Court accepts that the Report of the Secretary-General on the
United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, submitted to
the Security Council on 28 March 2008, stated that “the Assembly of
Kosovo held a session during which it adopted a ‘declaration of inde-
pendence’, declaring Kosovo an independent and sovereign State”
(United Nations doc. S/2008/211, para. 3). This was the normal periodic

report on UNMIK activities, the purpose of which was to inform the
Security Council about developments in Kosovo; it was not intended as
a legal analysis of the declaration or the capacity in which those who
adopted it had acted.
109. The Court thus arrives at the conclusion that, taking all factors

together, the authors of the declaration of independence of 17 February
2008 did not act as one of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Govern-
ment within the Constitutional Framework, but rather as persons who

48acted together in their capacity as representatives of the people of Kos-
ovo outside the framework of the interim administration.

(b) The question whether the authors of the declaration of indepen-
dence acted in violation of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)
or the measures adopted thereunder

110. Having established the identity of the authors of the declaration
of independence, the Court turns to the question whether their act in
promulgating the declaration was contrary to any prohibition contained

in Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) or the Constitutional Frame-
work adopted thereunder.
111. The Court recalls that this question has been a matter of contro-
versy in the present proceedings. Some participants to the proceedings
have contended that the declaration of independence of 17 February
2008 was a unilateral attempt to bring to an end the international pres-

ence established by Security Council resolution 1244 (1999), a result
which it is said could only be effectuated by a decision of the Security
Council itself. It has also been argued that a permanent settlement for
Kosovo could only be achieved either by agreement of all parties involved
(notably including the consent of the Republic of Serbia) or by a specific

Security Council resolution endorsing a specific final status for Kosovo,
as provided for in the Guiding Principles of the Contact Group. Accord-
ing to this view, the unilateral action on the part of the authors of the
declaration of independence cannot be reconciled with Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) and thus constitutes a violation of that resolution.

112. Other participants have submitted to the Court that Security
Council resolution 1244 (1999) did not prevent or exclude the possibility
of Kosovo’s independence. They argued that the resolution only regu-
lates the interim administration of Kosovo, but not its final or permanent

status. In particular, the argument was put forward that Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) does not create obligations under international
law prohibiting the issuance of a declaration of independence or making
it invalid, and does not make the authors of the declaration of independ-
ence its addressees. According to this position, if the Security Council
had wanted to preclude a declaration of independence, it would have

done so in clear and unequivocal terms in the text of the resolution, as it
did in resolution 787 (1992) concerning the Republika Srpska. In addi-
tion, it was argued that the references, in the annexes of Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999), to the Rambouillet accords and thus indirectly to
the “will of the people” (see Chapter 8.3 of the Rambouillet accords) of

Kosovo, support the view that Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)
not only did not oppose the declaration of independence, but indeed con-
templated it. Other participants contended that at least once the negoti-

49ating process had been exhausted, Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)
was no longer an obstacle to a declaration of independence.

*

113. The question whether resolution 1244 (1999) prohibits the authors

of the declaration of 17 February 2008 from declaring independence from
the Republic of Serbia can only be answered through a careful reading of
this resolution (see paras. 94 et seq.).
114. First, the Court observes that Security Council resolution 1244
(1999) was essentially designed to create an interim régime for Kosovo,

with a view to channelling the long-term political process to establish its
final status. The resolution did not contain any provision dealing with the
final status of Kosovo or with the conditions for its achievement.

In this regard the Court notes that contemporaneous practice of the
Security Council shows that in situations where the Security Council has

decided to establish restrictive conditions for the permanent status of a
territory, those conditions are specified in the relevant resolution. For
example, although the factual circumstances differed from the situation
in Kosovo, only 19 days after the adoption of resolution 1244 (1999), the
Security Council, in its resolution 1251 of 29 June 1999, reaffirmed its

position that a “Cyprus settlement must be based on a State of Cyprus
with a single sovereignty and international personality and a single citi-
zenship, with its independence and territorial integrity safeguarded”
(para. 11). The Security Council thus set out the specific conditions relat-
ing to the permanent status of Cyprus.

By contrast, under the terms of resolution 1244 (1999) the Security
Council did not reserve for itself the final determination of the situation
in Kosovo and remained silent on the conditions for the final status of
Kosovo.

Resolution 1244 (1999) thus does not preclude the issuance of the dec-
laration of independence of 17 February 2008 because the two instru-
ments operate on a different level: unlike resolution 1244 (1999), the
declaration of independence is an attempt to determine finally the status
of Kosovo.
115. Secondly, turning to the question of the addressees of Security

Council resolution 1244 (1999), as described above (see paragraph 58), it
sets out a general framework for the “deployment in Kosovo, under
United Nations auspices, of international civil and security presences”
(para. 5). It is mostly concerned with creating obligations and authoriza-
tions for United Nations Member States as well as for organs of the

United Nations such as the Secretary-General and his Special Repre-
sentative (see notably paras. 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11 of Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999)). The only point at which resolution 1244 (1999)

50expressly mentions other actors relates to the Security Council’s demand,
on the one hand, “that the KLA and other armed Kosovo Albanian

groups end immediately all offensive actions and comply with the require-
ments for demilitarization” (para. 15) and, on the other hand, for the
“full co-operation by all concerned, including the international security
presence, with the International Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia”
(para. 14). There is no indication, in the text of Security Council resolu-

tion 1244 (1999), that the Security Council intended to impose, beyond
that, a specific obligation to act or a prohibition from acting, addressed
to such other actors.
116. The Court recalls in this regard that it has not been uncommon
for the Security Council to make demands on actors other than United

Nations Member States and inter-governmental organizations. More spe-
cifically, a number of Security Council resolutions adopted on the subject
of Kosovo prior to Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) contained
demands addressed eo nomine to the Kosovo Albanian leadership. For
example, resolution 1160 (1998) “[c]all[ed] upon the authorities in Bel-
grade and the leadership of the Kosovar Albanian community urgently to

enter without preconditions into a meaningful dialogue on political status
issues” (resolution 1160 (1998), para. 4; emphasis added). Resolution 1199
(1998) included four separate demands on the Kosovo Albanian leader-
ship, i.e., improving the humanitarian situation, entering into a dialogue
with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, pursuing their goals by peaceful

means only, and co-operating fully with the Prosecutor of the Interna-
tional Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (resolution
1199 (1998), paras. 2, 3, 6 and 13). Resolution 1203 (1998) “[d]em-
and[ed] . . . that the Kosovo Albanian leadership and all other elements
of the Kosovo Albanian community comply fully and swiftly with reso-

lutions 1160 (1998) and 1199 (1998) and co-operate fully with the OSCE
Verification Mission in Kosovo” (resolution 1203 (1998), para. 4).
The same resolution also called upon the “Kosovo Albanian leadership
to enter immediately into a meaningful dialogue without preconditions
and with international involvement, and to a clear timetable, leading to

an end of the crisis and to a negotiated political solution to the issue of
Kosovo”; demanded that “the Kosovo Albanian leadership and all
others concerned respect the freedom of movement of the OSCE Verification
Mission and other international personnel”; “[i]nsist[ed] that the Kosovo
Albanian leadership condemn all terrorist actions”; and demanded that
the Kosovo Albanian leadership “co-operate with international efforts to

improve the humanitarian situation and to avert the impending humani-
tarian catastrophe” (resolution 1203 (1998), paras. 5, 6, 10 and 11).

117. Such reference to the Kosovo Albanian leadership or other actors,
notwithstanding the somewhat general reference to “all concerned”

51(para. 14), is missing from the text of Security Council resolution 1244
(1999). When interpreting Security Council resolutions, the Court must

establish, on a case-by-case basis, considering all relevant circumstances,
for whom the Security Council intended to create binding legal obliga-
tions. The language used by the resolution may serve as an important
indicator in this regard. The approach taken by the Court with regard to
the binding effect of Security Council resolutions in general is, mutatis

mutandis, also relevant here. In this context, the Court recalls its previous
statement that:

“The language of a resolution of the Security Council should be
carefully analysed before a conclusion can be made as to its binding
effect. In view of the nature of the powers under Article 25, the ques-
tion whether they have been in fact exercised is to be determined in
each case, having regard to the terms of the resolution to be inter-

preted, the discussions leading to it, the Charter provisions invoked
and, in general, all circumstances that might assist in determining
the legal consequences of the resolution of the Security Council.”
(Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security

Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1971, p. 53, para. 114.)

118. Bearing this in mind, the Court cannot accept the argument that
Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) contains a prohibition, binding
on the authors of the declaration of independence, against declaring inde-
pendence; nor can such a prohibition be derived from the language of the
resolution understood in its context and considering its object and pur-

pose. The language of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) is at best
ambiguous in this regard. The object and purpose of the resolution, as
has been explained in detail (see paragraphs 96 to 100), is the establish-
ment of an interim administration for Kosovo, without making any
definitive determination on final status issues. The text of the resolution

explains that the
“main responsibilities of the international civil presence will
include . . . [o]rganizing and overseeing the development of provi-

sional institutions for democratic and autonomous self-government
pending a political settlement ” (para. 11 (c) of the resolution;
emphasis added).

The phrase “political settlement”, often cited in the present proceedings,
does not modify this conclusion. First, that reference is made within the
context of enumerating the responsibilities of the international civil pres-
ence, i.e., the Special Representative of the Secretary-General in Kosovo

and UNMIK, and not of other actors. Secondly, as the diverging views
presented to the Court on this matter illustrate, the term “political settle-
ment” is subject to various interpretations. The Court therefore con-

52cludes that this part of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) cannot be
construed to include a prohibition, addressed in particular to the authors

of the declaration of 17 February 2008, against declaring independence.

119. The Court accordingly finds that Security Council resolu-
tion 1244 (1999) did not bar the authors of the declaration of 17 Febru-

ary 2008 from issuing a declaration of independence from the Republic
of Serbia. Hence, the declaration of independence did not violate Security
Council resolution 1244 (1999).

*
120. The Court therefore turns to the question whether the declaration

of independence of 17 February 2008 has violated the Constitutional
Framework established under the auspices of UNMIK. Chapter 5 of the
Constitutional Framework determines the powers of the Provisional
Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo. It was argued by a number
of States which participated in the proceedings before the Court that the

promulgation of a declaration of independence is an act outside the
powers of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government as set out in
the Constitutional Framework.
121. The Court has already held, however (see paragraphs 102 to 109

above), that the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 was
not issued by the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government, nor was it
an act intended to take effect, or actually taking effect, within the legal
order in which those Provisional Institutions operated. It follows that the
authors of the declaration of independence were not bound by the frame-

work of powers and responsibilities established to govern the conduct of
the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government. Accordingly, the Court
finds that the declaration of independence did not violate the Constitu-
tional Framework.

* * *

V. G ENERAL C ONCLUSION

122. The Court has concluded above that the adoption of the decla-
ration of independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general
international law, Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) or the Constitu-
tional Framework. Consequently the adoption of that declaration did

not violate any applicable rule of international law.

* * *

123. For these reasons,

T HE COURT ,
(1) Unanimously,

53 Finds that it has jurisdiction to give the advisory opinion requested;

(2) By nine votes to five,

Decides to comply with the request for an advisory opinion;

IN FAVOUR: President Owada; Judges Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal, Simma,
Abraham, Sepúlveda-Amor, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood;

AGAINST: Vice-President Tomka; Judges Koroma, Keith, Bennouna, Skot-
nikov;

(3) By ten votes to four,

Is of the opinion that the declaration of independence of Kosovo
adopted on 17 February 2008 did not violate international law.

IN FAVOUR: President Owada; Judges Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal, Simma,
Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Green-
wood;
AGAINST: Vice-President Tomka; Judges Koroma, Bennouna, Skotnikov.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at

the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-second day of July, two thou-
sand and ten, in two copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of
the Court and the other transmitted to the Secretary-General of the

United Nations.

(Signed) President. (Signed) Hisashi O WADA ,

President.

(Signed) Philippe C OUVREUR ,

Registrar.

Vice-President TOMKA appends a declaration to the Advisory Opinion
of the Court; Judge K OROMA appends a dissenting opinion to the Advi-
sory Opinion of the Court; Judge S IMMA appends a declaration to the
Advisory Opinion of the Court; Judges K EITH and S EPÚLVEDA -AMOR

append separate opinions to the Advisory Opinion of the Court;
Judges B ENNOUNA and S KOTNIKOV append dissenting opinions to the
Advisory Opinion of the Court; Judges C ANÇADO T RINDADE and Y USUF

append separate opinions to the Advisory Opinion of the Court.

(Initialled) H.O.

(Initialled) Ph.C.

54

Bilingual Content

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL LAW

OF THE UNILATERAL
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
IN RESPECT OF KOSOVO

ADVISORY OPINION OF 22 JULY 2010

2010

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES |TS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

CONFORMITE u AU DROIT INTERNATIONAL
DE LA DuCLARATION
UNILATE uRALE D’INDuPENDANCE

RELATIVE AU KOSOVO

AVIS CONSULTATIF DU 22 JUILLET 2010 Official citation:
Accordance with International Law of the Unilateral Declaration
of Independence in Respect of Kosovo, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 2010,p.403

Mode officiel de citation:
Conformité au droit international de la déclaration unilatérale
d’indépendance relative au Kosovo, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 2010,p.403

Sales number
ISSN 0074-4441 o
N de vente: 997
ISBN 978-92-1-071107-4 22 JULY 2010

ADVISORY OPINION

ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL LAW
OF THE UNILATERAL
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE
IN RESPECT OF KOSOVO

CONFORMITE u AU DROIT INTERNATIONAL
DE LA DuCLARATION
UNILATEuRALE D’INDuPENDANCE
RELATIVE AU KOSOVO

22 JUILLET 2010

AVIS CONSULTATIF TABLE OF CONTENTS

Paragraphs

CHRONOLOGY OF THE PROCEDURE 1-16

I. URISDICTION ANDDISCRETION 17-48

A. Jurisdiction 18-28
B. Discretion 29-48

II. COPE AND M EANING OF THEQUESTION 49-56

III. ACTUAL BACKGROUND 57-77
A. Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and the relevant
UNMIK regulations 58-63

B. The relevant events in the final status process prior to
17 February 2008 64-73
C. The events of 17 February 2008 and thereafter 74-77

IV. THE Q UESTION WHETHER THED ECLARATION OFINDEPENDENCE IS
INA CCORDANCE WITH NTERNATIONAL LAW 78-121

A. General international law 79-84
B. Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and the UNMIK
Constitutional Framework created thereunder 85-121

1. Interpretation of Security Council resolution 1244 (194-100

2. The question whether the declaration of independence is
in accordance with Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)
and the measures adopted thereunder 101-121

(a) The identity of the authors of the declaration of inde-
pendence 102-109
(b) The question whether the authors of the declaration
of independence acted in violation of Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) or the measures adopted there-

under 110-121

V. G ENERALC ONCLUSION 122
O PERATIVECLAUSE 123

4 TABLE DES MATIE vRES

Paragraphes

Q UALITÉS 1-16

I. COMPÉTENCE ET POUVOIR DISCRÉTIONNAIRE 17-48
A. Compétence 18-28
B. Pouvoir discrétionnaire 29-48

II. PORTÉE ET SENS DE LA QUESTION POSÉE 49-56

III. CONTEXTE FACTUEL 57-77

A. La résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité et les règle-
ments pertinents de la MINUK 58-63
B. Les principaux événements survenus avant le 17 février 2008
dans le cadre du processus de détermination du statut final 64-73
C. Les événements survenus le 17 février 2008 et par la suite 74-77

IV. Q UESTION DE LA CONFORMITÉ DE LA DÉCLARATION D ’INDÉPEN-
DANCE AU DROIT INTERNATIONAL 78-121

A. Le droit international général 79-84
B. La résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité et le cadre
constitutionnel de la MINUK établi en vertu de cette réso-
lution 85-121
1. Interprétation de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de

sécurité 94-100
2. Question de la conformité de la déclaration d’indépen-
dance à la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité
et aux mesures adoptées en vertu de celle-ci 101-121
a) L’identité des auteurs de la déclaration d’indépen-
dance 102-109

b) La question de la violation éventuelle par les auteurs
de la déclaration d’indépendance de la résolution 1244
(1999) du Conseil de sécurité ou des mesures adoptées
en vertu de celle-ci 110-121

V. C ONCLUSION GÉNÉRALE 122

D ISPOSITIF 123

4 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

2010 YEAR 2010
22 July
General List
No. 141 22 July 2010

ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL LAW
OF THE UNILATERAL

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

IN RESPECT OF KOSOVO

Jurisdiction of the Court to give the advisory opinion requested.
Article 65, paragraph 1, of the Statute — Article 96, paragraph 1, of the
Charter — Power of General Assembly to request advisory opinions — Arti-
cles 10 and 11 of the Charter — Contention that General Assembly acted out-
side its powers under the Charter — Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Charter —
Authorization to request an advisory opinion not limited by Article 12.

Requirement that the question on which the Court is requested to give its
opinion is a “legal question” — Contention that the act of making a declaration
of independence is governed by domestic constitutional law — The Court can
respond to the question by reference to international law without the need to
address domestic law — The fact that a question has political aspects does not
deprive it of its character as a legal question — The Court is not concerned with
the political motives behind a request or the political implications which its
opinion may have.
The Court has jurisdiction to give the advisory opinion requested.

**

Discretion of the Court to decide whether it should give an opinion.
Integrity of the Court’s judicial function — Only “compelling reasons” should
lead the Court to decline to exercise its judicial function — The motives of indi-
vidual States which sponsor a resolution requesting an advisory opinion are not
relevant to the Court’s exercise of its discretion — Requesting organ to assess
purpose, usefulness and political consequences of opinion.

Delimitation of the respective powers of the Security Council and the General

5 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

ANNÉE 2010 2010
22 juillet
22 juillet 2010 Rôlno141éral

CONFORMITE u AU DROIT INTERNATIONAL

DE LA DE uCLARATION

UNILATE uRALE D’INDE uPENDANCE

RELATIVE AU KOSOVO

Compétence de la Cour pour donner l’avis consultatif demandé.
Paragraphe 1 de l’article 65 du Statut — Paragraphe 1 de l’article 96 de la
Charte — Pouvoir de l’Assemblée générale de solliciter des avis consulta-
tifs — Articles 10 et 11 de la Charte — Affirmation selon laquelle l’Assemblée
générale aurait outrepassé la compétence que lui confère la Charte — Para-
graphe 1 de l’article 12 de la Charte — Autorisation de demander un avis
consultatif non limitée par l’article 12.
Question sur laquelle un avis consultatif est demandé devant nécessairement
constituer une «question juridique» — Affirmation selon laquelle l’acte consis-
tant à proclamer l’indépendance est régi par le droit constitutionnel interne —
Cour pouvant répondre à la question posée en se fondant sur le droit interna-
tional sans avoir à examiner le droit interne — Aspects politiques d’une ques-

tion ne lui ôtant pas son caractère juridique — Non-pertinence pour la Cour des
motifs politiques qui pourraient avoir inspiré une demande ou des conséquences
politiques que pourrait avoir son avis.
Cour compétente pour donner l’avis consultatif demandé.

**

Pouvoir discrétionnaire de la Cour de décider s’il échet de donner un avis.
Intégrité de la fonction judiciaire de la Cour — Seules des «raisons décisives»
pouvant conduire la Cour à refuser d’exercer sa fonction judiciaire — Non-
pertinence pour l’exercice par la Cour de son pouvoir discrétionnaire des motifs
ayant inspiré les Etats à l’origine d’une résolution portant demande d’avis
consultatif — Organe dont émane la demande d’avis devant lui-même détermi-
ner le but, l’utilité et les conséquences politiques de celui-ci.
Délimitation des pouvoirs respectifs du Conseil de sécurité et de l’Assemblée

5Assembly — Nature of the Security Council’s involvement in relation to Kos-
ovo — Article 12 of the Charter does not bar action by the General Assembly in
respect of threats to international peace and security which are before the Secu-
rity Council — General Assembly has taken action with regard to the situation
in Kosovo.
No compelling reasons for Court to use its discretion not to give an advisory

opinion.

**

Scope and meaning of the question.
Text of the question in General Assembly resolution 63/3 — Power of the
Court to clarify the question — No need to reformulate the question posed by
the General Assembly — For the proper exercise of its judicial function, the
Court must establish the identity of the authors of the declaration of independ-
ence — No intention by the General Assembly to restrict the Court’s freedom to
determine that issue — The Court’s task is to determine whether or not the decla-
ration was adopted in violation of international law.

**

Factual background.
Framework for interim administration of Kosovo put in place by the Security
Council — Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) — Establishment of the
United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) — Role

of Special Representative of the Secretary-General — “Four pillars” of the
UNMIK régime — Constitutional Framework for Provisional Self-Govern-
ment — Relations between the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government and
the Special Representative of the Secretary-General.
Relevant events in the final status process — Appointment by Secretary-
General of Special Envoy for the future status process for Kosovo — Guiding
Principles of the Contact Group — Failure of consultative process — Compre-
hensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement by Special Envoy — Failure
of negotiations on the future status of Kosovo under the auspices of the Troika —
Elections held for the Assembly of Kosovo on 17 November 2007 — Adoption of
the declaration of independence on 17 February 2008.

**

Whether the declaration of independence is in accordance with international

law.
No prohibition of declarations of independence according to State practice —
Contention that prohibition of unilateral declarations of independence is implicit
in the principle of territorial integrity — Scope of the principle of territorial
integrity is confined to the sphere of relations between States — No general pro-
hibition may be inferred from the practice of the Security Council with regard to
declarations of independence — Issues relating to the extent of the right of self-

6générale — Nature de l’engagement du Conseil de sécurité au regard du
Kosovo — Article 12 de la Charte n’interdisant pas à l’Assemblée générale
d’agir en réponse à des menaces pour la paix et la sécurité internationales dont
le Conseil de sécurité est saisi — Assemblée générale ayant pris des mesures
relatives à la situation au Kosovo.
Absence de raisons décisives pour la Cour d’user de son pouvoir discrétion-

naire de ne pas donner d’avis consultatif.

**

Portée et sens de la question posée.
Libellé de la question formulée dans la résolution 63/3 de l’Assemblée générale
— Pouvoir de la Cour de clarifier la question posée — Inutilité de reformuler la
question posée par l’Assemblée générale — Cour devant établir l’identité des
auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance pour le bon exercice de sa fonction
judiciaire — Assemblée générale n’ayant pas eu l’intention de poser des li-
mites à la liberté de la Cour de trancher ce point — Tâche de la Cour consis-
tant à déterminer si la déclaration a été adoptée en violation ou non du droit
international.

**

Contexte factuel.
Cadre pour une administration intérimaire du Kosovo institué par le Conseil
de sécurité — Résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité — Création de la
Mission d’administration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo

(MINUK) — Rôle du représentant spécial du Secrétaire général — Les «qua-
tre piliers» du régime de la MINUK — Le cadre constitutionnel pour une admi-
nistration autonome provisoire — Relations entre les institutions provisoires
d’administration autonome et le représentant spécial du Secrétaire général.
Principaux événements survenus dans le cadre du processus de détermination
du statut final — Désignation par le Secrétaire général d’un envoyé spécial aux
fins du processus de détermination du statut futur du Kosovo — Principes direc-
teurs du groupe de contact — Echec du processus consultatif — Proposition glo-
bale de règlement portant statut du Kosovo présentée par l’envoyé spé-
cial — Echec des négociations sur le statut futur du Kosovo tenues sous les
auspices de la troïka — Elections visant à désigner les membres de l’Assemblée
du Kosovo tenues le 17 novembre 2007 — Adoption de la déclaration d’indépen-
dance le 17 février 2008.

**

Question de la conformité au droit international de la déclaration d’indépen-

dance.
Absence d’interdiction des déclarations d’indépendance suivant la pratique
des Etats — Affirmation selon laquelle l’interdiction des déclarations unila-
térales d’indépendance figurerait implicitement dans le principe de l’intégrité
territoriale — Portée du principe de l’intégrité territoriale limitée à la sphère
des relations interétatiques — Interdiction générale ne pouvant être déduite
de la pratique du Conseil de sécurité relative aux déclarations d’indépendance

6determination and the existence of any right of “remedial secession” are beyond
the scope of the question posed by the General Assembly.

General international law contains no applicable prohibition of declarations
of independence — Declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 did not
violate general international law.

Security Council resolution 1244 and the Constitutional Framework — Reso-
lution 1244 (1999) imposes international legal obligations and is part of the
applicable international law — Constitutional Framework possesses interna-
tional legal character — Constitutional Framework is part of specific legal
order created pursuant to resolution 1244 (1999) — Constitutional Framework
regulates matters which are the subject of internal law — Supervisory powers of
the Special Representative of the Secretary-General — Security Council resolu-
tion 1244 (1999) and the Constitutional Framework were in force and applica-
ble as at 17 February 2008 — Neither of them contains a clause providing for
termination and neither has been repealed — The Special Representative of the
Secretary-General continues to exercise his functions in Kosovo.
Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and the Constitutional Framework
form part of the international law to be considered in replying to the question

before the Court.
Interpretation of Security Council resolutions — Resolution 1244 (1999)
established an international civil and security presence in Kosovo — Temporary
suspension of exercise of Serbia’s authority flowing from its continuing sover-
eignty over the territory of Kosovo — Resolution 1244 (1999) created an
interim régime — Object and purpose of resolution 1244 (1999).

Identity of the authors of the declaration of independence — Whether the dec-
laration of independence was an act of the Assembly of Kosovo — Authors of
the declaration did not seek to act within the framework of interim self-admin-
istration of Kosovo — Authors undertook to fulfil the international obligations
of Kosovo — No reference in original Albanian text to the declaration being the
work of the Assembly of Kosovo — Silence of the Special Representative of the

Secretary-General — Authors of the declaration of independence acted together
in their capacity as representatives of the people of Kosovo outside the frame-
work of the interim administration.

Whether or not the authors of the declaration of independence acted in viola-
tion of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) — Resolution 1244 (1999)
addressed to United Nations Member States and organs of the United Nations —
No specific obligations addressed to other actors — The resolution did not con-
tain any provision dealing with the final status of Kosovo — Security Council
did not reserve for itself the final determination of the situation in Kosovo —
Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) did not bar the authors of the declara-
tion of 17 February 2008 from issuing a declaration of independence — Decla-
ration of independence did not violate Security Council resolution 1244 (1999).

Declaration of independence was not issued by the Provisional Institutions of
Self-Government — Declaration of independence did not violate the Constitu-
tional Framework.
Adoption of the declaration of independence did not violate any applicable
rule of international law.

7— Questions relatives à la portée du droit à l’autodétermination et à l’existence
d’un droit de «sécession-remède» sortant du cadre de celle posée par l’Assem-
blée générale.
Droit international général ne comportant aucune interdiction applicable aux
déclarations d’indépendance — Déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008
n’ayant pas violé le droit international général.

La résolution 1244 du Conseil de sécurité et le cadre constitutionnel — Réso-
lution 1244 (1999) imposant des obligations juridiques internationales et faisant
partie du droit international applicable — Cadre constitutionnel revêtant un
caractère juridique international — Cadre constitutionnel faisant partie de
l’ordre juridique spécifique créé en vertu de la résolution 1244 (1999) — Cadre
constitutionnel réglementant les questions qui relèvent du droit interne — Pou-
voirs de supervision du représentant spécial du Secrétaire général — Résolu-
tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité et cadre constitutionnel tous deux en
vigueur et applicables le 17 février 2008 — Aucun d’eux ne contenant de clause
d’extinction ni n’ayant été abrogé — Poursuite de l’exercice de ses fonctions au
Kosovo par le représentant spécial du Secrétaire général.
Résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité et cadre constitutionnel comme
faisant partie du droit international à considérer pour répondre à la question

soumise à la Cour.
Interprétation des résolutions du Conseil de sécurité — Présences internatio-
nales civile et de sécurité au Kosovo établies par la résolution 1244
(1999) — Suspension temporaire de l’exercice par la Serbie des pouvoirs
découlant de la souveraineté dont elle demeure titulaire sur le territoire du
Kosovo — Régime intérimaire établi par la résolution 1244 (1999) — Objet
et but de la résolution 1244 (1999).
Identité des auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance — Question de savoir si
la déclaration d’indépendance constituait un acte de l’Assemblée du
Kosovo — Auteurs de la déclaration n’ayant pas eu l’intention d’agir dans le
cadre du régime intérimaire d’administration autonome du Kosovo — Auteurs
de la déclaration s’étant engagés à respecter les obligations internationales du
Kosovo — Texte albanais original de la déclaration n’indiquant pas que celle-ci

soit l’Œuvre de l’Assemblée du Kosovo — Silence du représentant spécial du
Secrétaire général — Auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance ayant agi de
concert en qualité de représentants du peuple du Kosovo hors du cadre de
l’administration provisoire.
Question de savoir si les auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance ont agi en
violation ou non de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité — Résolu-
tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité s’adressant aux Etats Membres de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies et aux organes des Nations Unies — Aucune
obligation spécifique imposée à d’autres acteurs — Résolution ne comportant
aucune disposition concernant le statut final du Kosovo — Conseil de sécurité ne
s’étant pas réservé le règlement définitif de la situation au Kosovo — Résolu-
tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité ne faisant pas obstacle à une proclama-
tion de l’indépendance du Kosovo par les auteurs de la déclaration du

17 février 2008 — Déclaration d’indépendance n’ayant pas violé la résolu-
tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité.
Déclaration d’indépendance n’émanant pas des institutions provisoires d’admi-
nistration autonome — Déclaration d’indépendance n’ayant pas violé le cadre
constitutionnel.
Adoption de la déclaration d’indépendance n’ayant violé aucune règle appli-
cable du droit international.

7 ADVISORY OPINION

Present: President O WADA ; Vice-President TOMKA ; Judges K OROMA ,
A L-KHASAWNEH ,BUERGENTHAL ,S IMMA,A BRAHAM ,K EITH,S EPÚLVEDA-
A MOR ,B ENNOUNA ,SKOTNIKOV ,C ANÇADO TRINDADE ,Y USUF,G REEN-
WOOD ; Registrar COUVREUR .

On the accordance with international law of the unilateral declaration of
independence in respect of Kosovo,

T HE COURT ,
composed as above,

gives the following Advisory Opinion:

1. The question on which the advisory opinion of the Court has been requested
is set forth in resolution 63/3 adopted by the General Assembly of the United
Nations (hereinafter the General Assembly) on 8 October 2008. By a letter
dated 9 October 2008 and received in the Registry by facsimile on 10 Octo-
ber 2008, the original of which was received in the Registry on 15 Octo-

ber 2008, the Secretary-General of the United Nations officially communicated
to the Court the decision taken by the General Assembly to submit the ques-
tion for an advisory opinion. Certified true copies of the English and French
versions of the resolution were enclosed with the letter. The resolution reads as
follows:

“The General Assembly,
Mindful of the purposes and principles of the United Nations,

Bearing in mind its functions and powers under the Charter of the
United Nations,

Recalling that on 17 February 2008 the Provisional Institutions of Self-
Government of Kosovo declared independence from Serbia,

Aware that this act has been received with varied reactions by the Mem-
bers of the United Nations as to its compatibility with the existing inter-
national legal order,
Decides, in accordance with Article 96 of the Charter of the United

Nations to request the International Court of Justice, pursuant to Arti-
cle 65 of the Statute of the Court, to render an advisory opinion on the
following question:

‘Is the unilateral declaration of independence by the Provisional Insti-
tutions of Self-Government of Kosovo in accordance with international
law?’”

2. By letters dated 10 October 2008, the Registrar, pursuant to Article 66,
paragraph 1, of the Statute, gave notice of the request for an advisory opinion
to all States entitled to appear before the Court.
3. By an Order dated 17 October 2008, in accordance with Article 66, para-
graph 2, of the Statute, the Court decided that the United Nations and its
Member States were likely to be able to furnish information on the question.

8 AVIS CONSULTATIF

Présents: M. O WADA , président .T OMKA , vice-président ; MM. KOROMA ,
A L-KHASAWNEH ,BUERGENTHAL ,S IMMA,A BRAHAM ,K EITH,SEPÚLVEDA -
A MOR ,BENNOUNA ,SKOTNIKOV ,C ANÇADO TRINDADE ,Y USUF,G REEN -
WOOD , juges;M.C OUVREUR , greffier.

Sur la conformité au droit international de la déclaration unilatérale d’indé-
pendance relative au Kosovo,

L AC OUR ,
ainsi composée,

donne l’avis consultatif suivant:

1. La question sur laquelle un avis consultatif est demandé à la Cour est
énoncée dans la résolution 63/3 que l’Assemblée générale des Nations Unies (ci-
après l’Assemblée générale) a adoptée le 8 octobre 2008. Par une lettre datée du
9 octobre 2008 et reçue au Greffe par télécopie le 10 octobre 2008, dont l’ori-
ginal est parvenu au Greffe le 15 octobre 2008, le Secrétaire général de l’Orga-

nisation des Nations Unies a officiellement communiqué à la Cour la décision
prise par l’Assemblée générale de lui soumettre cette question pour avis consul-
tatif. Des copies certifiées conformes des versions anglaise et française de la
résolution étaient jointes à cette lettre. La résolution se lit comme suit:

«L’Assemblée générale,
Tenant compte des buts et principes des Nations Unies,

Ayant à l’esprit les fonctions et les pouvoirs que lui confère la Charte
des Nations Unies,

Rappelant que, le 17 février 2008, les institutions provisoires d’adminis-
tration autonome du Kosovo ont déclaré l’indépendance du Kosovo de la
Serbie,

Consciente du fait que cet acte a suscité des réactions diverses de la part
des Membres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies quant à la question de
savoir s’il était conforme à l’ordre juridique international actuel,
Décide, conformément à l’article 96 de la Charte des Nations Unies,

de demander à la Cour internationale de Justice, en application de l’ar-
ticle 65 de son Statut, de donner un avis consultatif sur la question
suivante:

«La déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance des institutions provi-
soires d’administration autonome du Kosovo est-elle conforme au droit
international?»»

2. Par lettres en date du 10 octobre 2008, le greffier a notifié la requête pour
avis consultatif à tous les Etats admis à ester devant la Cour, conformément au
paragraphe 1 de l’article 66 du Statut.
3. Par ordonnance en date du 17 octobre 2008, la Cour a décidé que l’Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies et ses Etats Membres étaient susceptibles de fournir
des renseignements sur cette question, conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’ar-

8By the same Order, the Court fixed, respectively, 17 April 2009 as the time-limit
within which written statements might be submitted to it on the question, and
17 July 2009 as the time-limit within which States and organizations having
presented written statements might submit written comments on the other writ-
ten statements in accordance with Article 66, paragraph 4, of the Statute.

The Court also decided that, taking account of the fact that the unilateral
declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 is the subject of the question
submitted to the Court for an advisory opinion, the authors of the above dec-
laration were considered likely to be able to furnish information on the ques-
tion. It therefore further decided to invite them to make written contributions
to the Court within the same time-limits.
4. By letters dated 20 October 2008, the Registrar informed the United
Nations and its Member States of the Court’s decisions and transmitted to
them a copy of the Order. By letter of the same date, the Registrar informed the
authors of the above-mentioned declaration of independence of the Court’s
decisions, and transmitted to them a copy of the Order.
5. Pursuant to Article 65, paragraph 2, of the Statute, on 30 January 2009
the Secretary-General of the United Nations communicated to the Court a

dossier of documents likely to throw light upon the question. The dossier was
subsequently placed on the Court’s website.
6. Within the time-limit fixed by the Court for that purpose, written state-
ments were filed, in order of their receipt, by: Czech Republic, France, Cyprus,
China, Switzerland, Romania, Albania, Austria, Egypt, Germany, Slovakia,
Russian Federation, Finland, Poland, Luxembourg, Libyan Arab Jamahiriya,
United Kingdom, United States of America, Serbia, Spain, Islamic Republic of
Iran, Estonia, Norway, Netherlands, Slovenia, Latvia, Japan, Brazil, Ireland,
Denmark, Argentina, Azerbaijan, Maldives, Sierra Leone and Bolivia.
The authors of the unilateral declaration of independence filed a written con-
tribution. On 21 April 2009, the Registrar communicated copies of the written
statements and written contribution to all States having submitted a written
statement, as well as to the authors of the unilateral declaration of independ-

ence.
7. On 29 April 2009, the Court decided to accept the written statement filed
by the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, submitted on 24 April 2009, after
expiry of the relevant time-limit. On 15 May 2009, the Registrar communicated
copies of this written statement to all States having submitted a written state-
ment, as well as to the authors of the unilateral declaration of independence.
8. By letters dated 8 June 2009, the Registrar informed the United Nations
and its Member States that the Court had decided to hold hearings, opening on
1 December 2009, at which they could present oral statements and comments,
regardless of whether or not they had submitted written statements and, as the
case may be, written comments. The United Nations and its Member States
were invited to inform the Registry, by 15 September 2009, if they intended to
take part in the oral proceedings. The letters further indicated that the authors

of the unilateral declaration of independence could present an oral contribution.

By letter of the same date, the Registrar informed the authors of the uni-
lateral declaration of independence of the Court’s decision to hold hearings,
inviting them to indicate, within the same time-limit, whether they intended to
take part in the oral proceedings.

9ticle 66 du Statut. Par la même ordonnance, la Cour a fixé respectivement au
17 avril 2009 la date d’expiration du délai dans lequel des exposés écrits pour-
raient lui être présentés sur cette question, et au 17 juillet 2009 la date d’expira-
tion du délai dans lequel les Etats ou organisations ayant présenté des exposés
écrits pourraient présenter des observations écrites sur les autres exposés écrits,

conformément au paragraphe 4 de l’article 66 du Statut.
La Cour a par ailleurs décidé que, la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance
du 17 février 2008 faisant l’objet de la question qui lui était soumise pour avis
consultatif, les auteurs de cette déclaration étaient susceptibles de fournir des
renseignements sur la question. En conséquence, la Cour a en outre décidé de
les inviter à lui soumettre des contributions écrites, dans les mêmes délais.

4. Par lettres en date du 20 octobre 2008, le greffier a informé l’Organisation
des Nations Unies et ses Etats Membres des décisions de la Cour et leur a fait
tenir copie de l’ordonnance. Par lettre datée du même jour, le greffier a informé
les auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance susvisée des décisions de la Cour et

leur a fait tenir copie de l’ordonnance.
5. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l’article 65 du Statut, le Secrétaire
général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies a communiqué à la Cour, le
30 janvier 2009, un dossier contenant des documents pouvant servir à élucider
la question qui a ensuite été publié sur le site Internet de la Cour.
6. Dans le délai fixé par la Cour à cette fin, des exposés écrits ont été déposés,
selon l’ordre de réception, par: la République tchèque, la France, Chypre, la
Chine, la Suisse, la Roumanie, l’Albanie, l’Autriche, l’Egypte, l’Allemagne, la
Slovaquie, la Fédération de Russie, la Finlande, la Pologne, le Luxembourg,
la Jamahiriya arabe libyenne, le Royaume-Uni, les Etats-Unis d’Amérique,
la Serbie, l’Espagne, la République islamique d’Iran, l’Estonie, la Norvège,

les Pays-Bas, la Slovénie, la Lettonie, le Japon, le Brésil, l’Irlande, le Dane-
mark, l’Argentine, l’Azerbaïdjan, les Maldives, la Sierra Leone et la Bolivie. Les
auteurs de la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance ont déposé une contribu-
tion écrite. Le 21 avril 2009, le greffier a communiqué des copies des exposés
écrits et de la contribution écrite à tous les Etats ayant présenté un exposé écrit,
ainsi qu’aux auteurs de la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance.
7. Le 29 avril 2009, la Cour a décidé d’autoriser le dépôt d’un exposé écrit
par la République bolivarienne du Venezuela, présenté le 24 avril 2009, soit
après l’expiration du délai pertinent. Le 15 mai 2009, le greffier a communiqué
des copies de cet exposé écrit à tous les Etats ayant présenté un exposé écrit,
ainsi qu’aux auteurs de la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance.

8. Par lettres en date du 8 juin 2009, le greffier a informé l’Organisation des
Nations Unies et ses Etats Membreerque la Cour avait décidé de tenir des
audiences, qui s’ouvriraient le 1 décembre 2009, au cours desquelles ils pour-
raient présenter oralement des exposés et observations, qu’ils aient ou non
déposé des exposés écrits et, le cas échéant, des observations écrites. L’Organi-
sation des Nations Unies et ses Etats Membres ont été priés de faire connaître
au Greffe, le 15 septembre 2009 au plus tard, s’ils entendaient prendre part
aux audiences. Il était en outre précisé dans les lettres que les auteurs de la dé-
claration unilatérale d’indépendance pourraient présenter une contribution
orale.
Par lettre datée du même jour, le greffier a informé les auteurs de la décla-

ration unilatérale d’indépendance de la décision de la Cour de tenir des au-
diences, et les a priés de lui faire connaître, dans le même délai, s’ils entendaient
prendre part aux audiences.

9 9. Within the time-limit fixed by the Court for that purpose, written com-
ments were filed, in order of their receipt, by: France, Norway, Cyprus, Serbia,
Argentina, Germany, Netherlands, Albania, Slovenia, Switzerland, Bolivia,
United Kingdom, United States of America and Spain. The authors of the uni-
lateral declaration of independence submitted a written contribution regarding
the written statements.

10. Upon receipt of the above-mentioned written comments and written
contribution, the Registrar, on 24 July 2009, communicated copies thereof to
all States having submitted written statements, as well as to the authors of the
unilateral declaration of independence.
11. By letters dated 30 July 2009, the Registrar communicated to the United
Nations, and to all of its Member States that had not participated in the writ-
ten proceedings, copies of all written statements and written comments, as well
as the written contributions of the authors of the unilateral declaration of inde-
pendence.
12. By letters dated 29 September 2009, the Registry transmitted a detailed
timetable of the hearings to those who, within the time-limit fixed for that pur-
pose by the Court, had expressed their intention to take part in the aforemen-
tioned proceedings.

13. Pursuant to Article 106 of the Rules of Court, the Court decided to make
the written statements and written comments submitted to the Court, as well as
the written contributions of the authors of the unilateral declaration of
independence, accessible to the public, with effect from the opening of the oral
proceedings.
14. In the course of hearings held from 1 to 11 December 2009, the Court
heard oral statements, in the following order, by:

for the Republic H.E. Mr. Du∏an T. Batakovic ´, Ph.D. in History, Uni-
of Serbia: versity of Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV), Ambassador of
the Republic of Serbia to France, Vice-Director of
the Institute for Balkan Studies and Assistant Pro-
fessor at the University of Belgrade, Head of Del-

egation,
Mr. Vladimir Djeric ´, S.J.D. (Michigan), Attorney at
Law, Mikijelj, Jankovic ´ & Bogdanovic ´, Belgrade,
Counsel and Advocate,
Mr. Andreas Zimmermann, LL.M. (Harvard), Profes-
sor of International Law, University of Potsdam,
Director of the Potsdam Center of Human Rights,
Member of the Permanent Court of Arbitration,
Counsel and Advocate,
Mr. Malcolm N. Shaw Q.C., Sir Robert Jennings Pro-
fessor of International Law, University of Leicester,
United Kingdom, Counsel and Advocate,

Mr. Marcelo G. Kohen, Professor of International
Law, Graduate Institute of International and Devel-
opment Studies, Geneva, Associate Member of the
Institut de droit international, Counsel and Advo-
cate,
Mr. Sa∏a Obradovic ´, Inspector General in the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs, Deputy Head of Delegation;

10 9. Dans le délai fixé par la Cour à cette fin, des observations écrites ont été
déposées, selon l’ordre de réception, par: la France, la Norvège, Chypre, la Ser-
bie, l’Argentine, l’Allemagne, les Pays-Bas, l’Albanie, la Slovénie, la Suisse, la
Bolivie, le Royaume-Uni, les Etats-Unis d’Amérique et l’Espagne. Les auteurs
de la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance ont présenté une contribution

écrite se rapportant aux exposés écrits.
10. Dès réception des observations écrites et de la contribution écrite sus-
indiquées, le greffier en a communiqué des copies, le 24 juillet 2009, à tous les
Etats ayant présenté des exposés écrits ainsi qu’aux auteurs de la déclaration
unilatérale d’indépendance.
11. Par lettres en date du 30 juillet 2009, le greffier a communiqué à l’Orga-
nisation des Nations Unies, ainsi qu’à tous ses Etats Membres n’ayant pas par-
ticipé à la procédure écrite, des copies de tous les exposés écrits et observations
écrites, ainsi que des contributions écrites des auteurs de la déclaration unila-
térale d’indépendance.
12. Par lettres en date du 29 septembre 2009, le Greffe a fait tenir le calen-

drier détaillé des audiences à ceux qui avaient manifesté, dans le délai fixé par
la Cour à cet effet, leur intention de prendre part à la procédure orale.

13. Conformément à l’article 106 du Règlement, la Cour a décidé de rendre
accessible au public le texte des exposés écrits et des observations écrites qui lui
ont été présentés, ainsi que le texte des contributions écrites des auteurs de la
déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance, à la date d’ouverture de la procédure
orale.
14. Au cours d’audiences tenues du 1 er au 11 décembre 2009, la Cour a
entendu en leurs exposés oraux et dans l’ordre suivant:

pour la République S. Exc. M. Dušan T. Batakovic ´, docteur en histoire de
de Serbie: l’Université Paris-Sorbonne (Paris IV), ambassadeur
de la République de Serbie auprès de la République
française, directeur adjoint de l’Institut des études
balkaniques et maître assistant à l’Université de Bel-
grade, chef de délégation,
M. Vladimir Djeric ´, S.J.D. (Michigan), avocat au cabi-
net Mikijelj, Jankovic ´ & Bogdanovic ´ à Belgrade,
conseil et avocat,
M. Andreas Zimmermann, LL.M. (Harvard), profes-
seur de droit international à l’Université de Pots-

dam, directeur du centre des droits de l’homme de
l’Université de Potsdam, membre de la Cour perma-
nente d’arbitrage, conseil et avocat,
M. Malcolm N. Shaw, Q.C., professeur de droit inter-
national à l’Université de Leicester (Royaume-Uni),
titulaire de la chaire Robert Jennings, conseil et avo-
cat,
M. Marcelo G. Kohen, professeur de droit internatio-
nal à l’Institut de hautes études internationales et du
développement de Genève, membre associé de l’Ins-
titut de droit international, conseil et avocat,

M. Saša Obradovic ´, inspecteur général au ministère
des affaires étrangères, chef adjoint de délégation;

10for the authors Mr. Skender Hyseni, Head of Delegation,
of the unilateral Sir Michael Wood, K.C.M.G., Member of the English
declaration of Bar Member of the International Law Commission,
independence: Counsel,
Mr. Daniel Müller, Researcher at the Centre de droit
international de Nanterre (CEDIN), University of

Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense, Counsel,
Mr. Sean D. Murphy, Patricia Roberts Harris Research
Professor of Law, George Washington University,
Counsel;
for the Republic H.E. Mr. Gazmend Barbullushi, Ambassador Extraor-
of Albania: dinary and Plenipotentiary of the Republic of Alba-

nia to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Legal
Adviser,
Mr. Jochen A. Frowein, M.C.L., Director emeritus of
the Max Planck Institute for International Law, Pro-
fessor emeritus of the University of Heidelberg,
Member of the Institute of International Law, Legal
Adviser,
Mr. Terry D. Gill, Professor of Military Law at the
University of Amsterdam and Associate Professor of
Public International Law at Utrecht University,
Legal Adviser;

for the Federal Ms Susanne Wasum-Rainer, Legal Adviser, Federal
Republic of Foreign Office (Berlin);
Germany:

for the Kingdom of H.E. Mr. Abdullah A. Alshaghrood, Ambassador of
Saudi Arabia: the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to the Kingdom of the
Netherlands, Head of Delegation;
for the Argentine H.E. Madam Susana Ruiz Cerutti, Ambassador, Legal
Republic: Adviser to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Interna-
tional Trade and Worship, Head of Delegation;

for the Republic H.E. Mr. Helmut Tichy, Ambassador, Deputy Legal
of Austria: Adviser, Federal Ministry of European and Interna-
tional Affairs;

for the Republic H.E. Mr. Agshin Mehdiyev, Ambassador and Perma-
of Azerbaijan: nent Representative of Azerbaijan to the United
Nations;
for the Republic H.E. Madam Elena Gritsenko, Ambassador of the

of Belarus: Republic of Belarus to the Kingdom of the Nether-
lands, Head of Delegation;
for the Plurinational H.E. Mr. Roberto Calzadilla Sarmiento, Ambassador
State of Bolivia: of the Plurinational State of Bolivia to the Kingdom
of the Netherlands;

for the Federative H.E. Mr. José Artur Denot Medeiros, Ambassador of
Republic of Brazil: the Federative Republic of Brazil to the Kingdom of
the Netherlands;

11pour les auteurs M. Skender Hyseni, chef de délégation,
de la déclaration sir Michael Wood, K.C.M.G., membre du barreau
unilatérale d’Angleterre et membre de la Commission du droit
d’indépendance: international, conseil,
M. Daniel Müller, chercheur au Centre de droit inter-

national de Nanterre (CEDIN), Université de Paris
Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense, conseil,
M. Sean D. Murphy, professeur de droit à l’Université
George Washington, titulaire de la chaire de recher-
che Patricia Roberts Harris, conseil;

pour la République S. Exc. M. Gazmend Barbullushi, ambassadeur extra-
d’Albanie: ordinaire et plénipotentiaire de la République
d’Albanie auprès du Royaume des Pays-Bas, conseil,

M. Jochen A. Frowein, M.C.L., directeur émérite de
l’Institut Max Planck pour le droit internatio-
nal, professeur émérite de l’Université de Heidel-
berg, membre de l’Institut de droit international,
conseil,
M. Terry D. Gill, professeur de droit militaire à l’Uni-
versité d’Amsterdam et professeur associé de droit

international public à l’Université d’Utrecht,
conseil;
pour la République M me Susanne Wasum-Rainer, conseiller juridique du
fédérale ministère fédéral des affaires étrangères (Berlin);
d’Allemagne:

pour le Royaume S. Exc. M. Abdullah A. Alshaghrood, ambassadeur
d’Arabie saoudite: du Royaume d’Arabie saoudite auprès du Royaume
des Pays-Bas, chef de délégation;
me
pour la République S. Exc. M Susana Ruiz Cerutti, ambassadeur,
argentine: conseiller juridique du ministère des affaires étran-
gères, du commerce international et du culte, chef de
délégation;

pour la République S. Exc. M. Helmut Tichy, ambassadeur, conseiller juri-
d’Autriche: dique adjoint au ministère fédéral des affaires euro-
péennes et internationales;
pour la République S. Exc. M. Agshin Mehdiyev, ambassadeur, représen-
d’Azerbaïdjan: tant permanent de l’Azerbaïdjan auprès de l’Organi-
sation des Nations Unies;

pour la République S. Exc. Mme Elena Gritsenko, ambassadeur de la Répu-
du Bélarus: blique du Bélarus auprès du Royaume des Pays-
Bas, chef de délégation;

pour l’Etat S. Exc. M. Roberto Calzadilla Sarmiento, ambassa-
plurinational deur de l’Etat plurinational de Bolivie auprès du
de Bolivie: Royaume des Pays-Bas;

pour la République S. Exc. M. José Artur Denot Medeiros, ambassadeur
fédérative de la République fédérative du Brésil auprès du
du Brésil: Royaume des Pays-Bas;

11for the Republic Mr. Zlatko Dimitroff, S.J.D., Director of the Interna-
of Bulgaria: tional Law Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Head of Delegation;

for the Republic Mr. Thomas Barankitse, Legal Attaché, Counsel,
of Burundi: Mr. Jean d’Aspremont, Associate Professor, Univer-
sity of Amsterdam, Chargé de cours invité, Catholic
University of Louvain, Counsel;
for the People’s H.E. Madam Xue Hanqin, Ambassador to the Asso-

Republic of China: ciation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), Legal
Counsel of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Member
of the International Law Commission, Member of
the Institut de droit international, Head of Delega-
tion;
for the Republic H.E. Mr. James Droushiotis, Ambassador of the
of Cyprus: Republic of Cyprus to the Kingdom of the Nether-
lands,
Mr. Vaughan Lowe Q.C., Member of the English Bar,

Chichele Professor of International Law, University
of Oxford, Counsel and Advocate,

Mr. Polyvios G. Polyviou, Counsel and Advocate;
for the Republic H.E. Madam Andreja Metelko-Zgombic ´, Ambassador,
of Croatia: Chief Legal Adviser in the Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and European Integration;

for the Kingdom H.E. Mr. Thomas Winkler, Ambassador, Under-
of Denmark: Secretary for Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign
Affairs, Head of Delegation;

for the Kingdom Ms Concepción Escobar Hernández, Legal Adviser,
of Spain: Head of the International Law Department, Minis-
try of Foreign Affairs and Co-operation, Head of
Delegation and Advocate;
for the United States Mr. Harold Hongju Koh, Legal Adviser, Department
of America: of State, Head of Delegation and Advocate;

for the Russian H.E. Mr. Kirill Gevorgian, Ambassador, Head of the
Federation: Legal Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,
Head of Delegation;
for the Republic Ms Päivi Kaukoranta, Director General, Legal Serv-
of Finland: ice, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

Mr. Martti Koskenniemi, Professor at the University
of Helsinki;
for the French Ms Edwige Belliard, Director of Legal Affairs, Minis-
Republic: try of Foreign and European Affairs,
Mr. Mathias Forteau, Professor at the University of
Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense;

for the Hashemite H.R.H. Prince Zeid Raad Zeid Al Hussein, Ambassa-
Kingdom of dor of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan to the
Jordan: United States of America, Head of Delegation;

12pour la République M. Zlatko Dimitroff, S.J.D., directeur du département
de Bulgarie: du droit international au ministère des affaires étran-
gères, chef de délégation;

pour la République M. Thomas Barankitse, attaché juridique, conseil,
du Burundi: M. Jean d’Aspremont, professeur associé à l’Université
d’Amsterdam et chargé de cours invité à l’Université
catholique de Louvain, conseil;
me
pour la République S. Exc. M Xue Hanqin, ambassadeur auprès de
populaire l’Association des nations de l’Asie du Sud-Est
de Chine: (ASEAN), conseiller juridique du ministère des affai-
res étrangères, membre de la Commission du droit
international, membre de l’Institut de droit interna-
tional, chef de délégation;

pour la République S. Exc. M. James Droushiotis, ambassadeur de la Répu-
de Chypre: blique de Chypre auprès du Royaume des Pays-Bas,

M. Vaughan Lowe, Q.C., membre du barreau d’Angle-
terre, professeur de droit international à l’Université
d’Oxford, titulaire de la chaire Chichele, conseil et
avocat,
M. Polyvios G. Polyviou, conseil et avocat;

pour la République S. Exc. M me Andreja Metelko-Zgombic ´, ambassadeur,
de Croatie: conseiller juridique principal du ministère des affai-
res étrangères et de l’intégration européenne;

pour le Royaume S. Exc. M. Thomas Winkler, ambassadeur, sous-secré-
du Danemark: taire d’Etat aux affaires juridiques au ministère des
affaires étrangères, chef de délégation;
pour le Royaume M meConcepción Escobar Hernández, conseiller juridi-
d’Espagne: que et chef du département du droit international au

ministère des affaires étrangères et de la coopération,
chef de délégation et avocat;
pour les Etats-Unis M. Harold Hongju Koh, conseiller juridique du dépar-
d’Amérique: tement d’Etat, chef de délégation et avocat;

pour la Fédération S. Exc. M. Kirill Gevorgian, ambassadeur, chef du
de Russie: département des affaires juridiques au ministère des
affaires étrangères, chef de délégation;
me
pour la République M Päivi Kaukoranta, directeur général du service
de Finlande: des affaires juridiques au ministère des affaires étran-
gères,
M. Martti Koskenniemi, professeur à l’Université
d’Helsinki;
pour la République M me Edwige Belliard, directeur des affaires juridiques

française: au ministère des affaires étrangères et européennes,
M. Mathias Forteau, professeur à l’Université de
Paris Ouest, Nanterre-La Défense;
pour le Royaume S.A.R. le prince Zeid Raad Zeid Al-Hussein, ambassa-
hachémite deur du Royaume hachémite de Jordanie auprès des
de Jordanie: Etats-Unis d’Amérique, chef de délégation;

12for the Kingdom Mr. Rolf Einar Fife, Director General, Legal Affairs
of Norway: Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Head of
Delegation;

for the Kingdom Ms Liesbeth Lijnzaad, Legal Adviser, Ministry of For-
of the Nether- eign Affairs;
lands:
for Romania: Mr. Bogdan Aurescu, Secretary of State, Ministry of
Foreign Affairs,
Mr. Cosmin Dinescu, Director-General for Legal

Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs;
for the United Mr. Daniel Bethlehem Q.C., Legal Adviser to the For-
Kingdom of Great eign and Commonwealth Office, Representative of
Britain and North- the United Kingdom of Great Britain and North-
ern Ireland: ern Ireland, Counsel and Advocate,
Mr. James Crawford, S.C., Whewell Professor of Inter-
national Law, University of Cambridge, Member of

the Institut de droit international, Counsel and
Advocate;
for the Bolivarian Mr. Alejandro Fleming, Deputy Minister for Europe
Republic of of the Ministry of the People’s Power for Foreign
Venezuela: Affairs;

for the Socialist H.E. Madam Nguyen Thi Hoang Anh, Doctor of Law,
Republic of Director-General, Department of International
Viet Nam: Law and Treaties, Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

15. Questions were put by Members of the Court to participants in the oral
proceedings; several of them replied in writing, as requested, within the pre-
scribed time-limit.
16. Judge Shi took part in the oral proceedings; he subsequently resigned
from the Court with effect from 28 May 2010.

*
* *

I. JURISDICTION AND D ISCRETION

17. When seised of a request for an advisory opinion, the Court must
first consider whether it has jurisdiction to give the opinion requested and
whether, should the answer be in the affirmative, there is any reason why
the Court, in its discretion, should decline to exercise any such jurisdic-
tion in the case before it (Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weap-

ons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I) , p. 232, para. 10; Legal
Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 144, para. 13).

A. Jurisdiction

18. The Court will thus first address the question whether it possesses

13pour le Royaume M. Rolf Einar Fife, directeur général du département
de Norvège des affaires juridiques au ministère des affaires étran-
gères, chef de délégation;
me
pour le Royaume M Liesbeth Lijnzaad, conseiller juridique du minis-
des Pays-Bas: tère des affaires étrangères;

pour la Roumanie: M. Bogdan Aurescu, secrétaire d’Etat au ministère des

affaires étrangères,
M. Cosmin Dinescu, directeur général des affaires juri-
diques du ministère des affaires étrangères;
pour le Royaume-Uni M. Daniel Bethlehem, Q.C., conseiller juridique du
de Grande-Bretagne ministère des affaires étrangères et du Common-
et d’Irlande wealth, représentant du Royaume-Uni de Grande-
du Nord: Bretagne et d’Irlande du Nord, conseil et avocat,

M. James Crawford, S.C., professeur de droit interna-
tional à l’Université de Cambridge, titulaire de la
chaire Whewell, membre de l’Institut de droit inter-
national, conseil et avocat;
pour la République M. Alejandro Fleming, secrétaire d’Etat aux affaires
bolivarienne européennes au ministère du pouvoir populaire pour
du Venezuela: les relations extérieures;
me
pour la République S. Exc. M Nguyen Thi Hoang Anh, docteur en droit,
socialiste directeur général du département du droit interna-
du Viet nam: tional et des traités internationaux au ministère des
affaires étrangères.

15. Des membres de la Cour ont posé des questions aux participants à la
procédure orale; plusieurs d’entre eux y ont répondu par écrit, ainsi qu’ils en
avaient été priés, dans le délai prévu à cet effet.
16. M. le juge Shi a pris part à la procédure orale; il a par la suite démis-
sionné de ses fonctions de membre de la Cour à compter du 28 mai 2010.

* * *

I. COMPÉTENCE ET POUVOIR DISCRÉTIONNAIRE

17. Lorsqu’elle est saisie d’une demande d’avis consultatif, la Cour
doit commencer par déterminer si elle a compétence pour donner l’avis

demandé et, dans l’affirmative, examiner s’il existe une quelconque raison
pour elle, sur la base de son appréciation discrétionnaire, de refuser
d’exercer une telle compétence en l’espèce (Licéité de la menace ou de
l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I) ,

p. 232, par. 10; Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le
territoire palestinien occupé, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) ,
p. 144, par. 13).

A. Compétence

18. La Cour commencera donc par rechercher si elle a compétence

13jurisdiction to give the advisory opinion requested by the General Assem-
bly on 8 October 2008. The power of the Court to give an advisory

opinion is based upon Article 65, paragraph 1, of its Statute, which pro-
vides that:

“The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at
the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance
with the Charter of the United Nations to make such a request.”

19. In its application of this provision, the Court has indicated that:
“It is . . . a precondition of the Court’s competence that the advi-

sory opinion be requested by an organ duly authorized to seek it
under the Charter, that it be requested on a legal question, and that,
except in the case of the General Assembly or the Security Council,
that question should be one arising within the scope of the activities
of the requesting organ.” (Application for Review of Judgement

No. 273 of the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1982 , pp. 333-334, para. 21.)

20. It is for the Court to satisfy itself that the request for an advisory
opinion comes from an organ of the United Nations or a specialized
agency having competence to make it. The General Assembly is author-
ized to request an advisory opinion by Article 96 of the Charter, which
provides that:

“1. The General Assembly or the Security Council may request
the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on any
legal question.

2. Other organs of the United Nations and specialized agencies,
which may at any time be so authorized by the General Assembly,
may also request advisory opinions of the Court on legal questions
arising within the scope of their activities.”

21. While paragraph 1 of Article 96 confers on the General Assembly
the competence to request an advisory opinion on “any legal question”,
the Court has sometimes in the past given certain indications as to the

relationship between the question which is the subject of a request for an
advisory opinion and the activities of the General Assembly (Interpreta-
tion of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase,
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 ,p.70; Legality of the Threat or
Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I) ,

pp. 232-233, paras. 11-12; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a
Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.
Reports 2004 (I), p. 145, paras. 16-17).
22. The Court observes that Article 10 of the Charter provides that:

“The General Assembly may discuss any questions or any matters
within the scope of the present Charter or relating to the powers and

14pour donner l’avis consultatif demandé par 1’Assemblée générale le
8 octobre 2008. La Cour tient le pouvoir de donner des avis consultatifs

du paragraphe 1 de l’article 65 de son Statut, aux termes duquel

«[l]a Cour peut donner un avis consultatif sur toute question juridi-
que, à la demande de tout organe ou institution qui aura été autorisé
par la Charte des Nations Unies ou conformément à ses dispositions
à demander cet avis».

19. Appliquant cette disposition, la Cour a indiqué que:

«pour qu[’elle] ait compétence, il faut que l’avis consultatif soit
demandé par un organe dûment habilité à cet effet conformément à
la Charte, qu’il porte sur une question juridique et que, sauf dans le
cas de l’Assemblée générale et du Conseil de sécurité, cette question
se pose dans le cadre de l’activité de cet organe» (Demande de réfor-
o
mation du jugement n 273 du Tribunal administratif des Nations
Unies, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1982 , p. 333-334, par. 21).

20. Il appartient à la Cour de s’assurer que la demande d’avis consul-
tatif émane d’un organe des Nations Unies ou d’une institution spéciali-
sée ayant compétence pour ce faire. L’Assemblée générale est autorisée à
demander un avis consultatif en vertu de l’article 96 de la Charte, qui dis-

pose que:
«1. [l]’Assemblée générale ou le Conseil de sécurité peut deman-

der à la Cour internationale de Justice un avis consultatif sur toute
question juridique.
2. Tous autres organes de l’Organisation et institutions spéciali-
sées qui peuvent, à un moment quelconque, recevoir de l’Assemblée
générale une autorisation à cet effet ont également le droit de deman-

der à la Cour des avis consultatifs sur des questions juridiques qui se
poseraient dans le cadre de leur activité.»

21. Bien que le paragraphe 1 de l’article 96 confère à l’Assemblée géné-
rale le pouvoir de demander un avis consultatif «sur toute question juri-
dique», la Cour a parfois, par le passé, donné certaines indications quant
à la relation entre la question faisant l’objet d’une demande d’avis consul-
tatif et les activités de l’Assemblée générale (Interprétation des traités de

paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie, première phase,
avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 ,p.0;Licéité de la menace ou de
l’emploi d’armes nucléaires, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I) ,
p. 232-233, par. 11-12; Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur
dans le territoire palestinien occupé, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil

2004 (I), p. 145, par. 16-17).
22. La Cour relève que, aux termes de l’article 10 de la Charte:

«L’Assemblée générale peut discuter toutes questions ou affaires
rentrant dans le cadre de la présente Charte ou se rapportant aux

14 functions of any organs provided for in the present Charter, and,
except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations to the

Members of the United Nations or to the Security Council or to
both on any such questions or matters.”

Moreover, Article 11, paragraph 2, of the Charter has specifically pro-
vided the General Assembly with competence to discuss “any questions
relating to the maintenance of international peace and security brought

before it by any Member of the United Nations” and, subject again to
the limitation in Article 12, to make recommendations with respect
thereto.
23. Article 12, paragraph 1, of the Charter provides that:

“While the Security Council is exercising in respect of any dispute
or situation the functions assigned to it in the present Charter, the
General Assembly shall not make any recommendation with regard

to that dispute or situation unless the Security Council so requests.”

24. In the present proceedings, it was suggested that, since the Security
Council was seised of the situation in Kosovo, the effect of Article 12,
paragraph 1, was that the General Assembly’s request for an advisory
opinion was outside its powers under the Charter and thus did not fall

within the authorization conferred by Article 96, paragraph 1. As the
Court has stated on an earlier occasion, however, “[a] request for an
advisory opinion is not in itself a ‘recommendation’ by the General
Assembly ‘with regard to [a] dispute or situation’” (Legal Consequences
of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advi-

sory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 148, para. 25). Accordingly,
while Article 12 may limit the scope of the action which the General
Assembly may take subsequent to its receipt of the Court’s opinion (a
matter on which it is unnecessary for the Court to decide in the present
context), it does not in itself limit the authorization to request an advi-

sory opinion which is conferred upon the General Assembly by Arti-
cle 96, paragraph 1. Whether the delimitation of the respective powers of
the Security Council and the General Assembly — of which Article 12 is
one aspect — should lead the Court, in the circumstances of the present
case, to decline to exercise its jurisdiction to render an advisory opinion is
another matter (which the Court will consider in paragraphs 29 to 48

below).
25. It is also for the Court to satisfy itself that the question on which
it is requested to give its opinion is a “legal question” within the meaning
of Article 96 of the Charter and Article 65 of the Statute. In the present
case, the question put to the Court by the General Assembly asks

whether the declaration of independence to which it refers is “in accord-
ance with international law”. A question which expressly asks the Court
whether or not a particular action is compatible with international law

15 pouvoirs et fonctions de l’un quelconque des organes prévus dans la
présente Charte, et, sous réserve des dispositions de l’article 12, for-

muler sur ces questions ou affaires des recommandations aux Mem-
bres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, au Conseil de sécurité, ou
aux Membres de l’Organisation et au Conseil de sécurité.»

En outre, le paragraphe 2 de l’article 11 de la Charte confère expressé-
ment compétence à l’Assemblée générale pour discuter «toutes questions
se rattachant au maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales dont

elle aura été saisie par l’une quelconque des Nations Unies...» et pour
faire des recommandations sur ces questions, là encore sous réserve de la
restriction imposée à l’article 12.
23. Aux termes du paragraphe 1 de l’article 12 de la Charte,

«[t]ant que le Conseil de sécurité remplit, à l’égard d’un différend ou

d’une situation quelconque, les fonctions qui lui sont attribuées par
la présente Charte, l’Assemblée générale ne doit faire aucune recom-
mandation sur ce différend ou cette situation, à moins que le Conseil
de sécurité ne le lui demande».

24. Il a été soutenu en l’espèce que, dès lors que le Conseil de sécurité
était saisi de la situation au Kosovo, il découlait du paragraphe 1 de

l’article 12 que la demande d’avis consultatif excédait les pouvoirs confé-
rés à l’Assemblée générale par la Charte et n’entrait donc pas dans le
cadre de l’autorisation prévue au paragraphe 1 de l’article 96. Comme la
Cour l’a indiqué par le passé, toutefois, une «requête pour avis consul-
tatif ne constitue pas en soi une «recommandation» de l’Assemblée géné-

rale «sur [un] différend ou [une] situation»» (Conséquences juridiques de
l’édification d’un mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé, avis consulta-
tif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 148, par. 25). En conséquence, s’il est vrai
que l’article 12 peut restreindre le champ d’action dont disposera l’Assem-
blée générale après avoir reçu l’avis de la Cour (et celle-ci n’a pas besoin

de se prononcer sur ce point en l’espèce), cette disposition ne limite pas
en elle-même l’autorisation de demander un avis consultatif conférée à
l’Assemblée générale par le paragraphe 1 de l’article 96. Tout autre est la
question de savoir si la délimitation des pouvoirs respectifs du Conseil de
sécurité et de l’Assemblée générale — dont l’article 12 est un aspect —

devrait conduire la Cour, dans les circonstances de l’espèce, à refuser
d’exercer sa compétence consultative (question que la Cour examinera
aux paragraphes 29 à 48 ci-dessous).

25. Il appartient également à la Cour de s’assurer que la question sur

laquelle son avis est demandé est une «question juridique» au sens de
l’article 96 de la Charte et de l’article 65 du Statut. En l’espèce, l’Assem-
blée générale demande à la Cour si la déclaration d’indépendance à
laquelle elle fait référence est «conforme au droit international». Or, une

question qui invite expressément la Cour à dire si une certaine action est
conforme ou non au droit international est assurément une question juri-

15certainly appears to be a legal question; as the Court has remarked on a
previous occasion, questions “framed in terms of law and rais[ing] prob-

lems of international law . . . are by their very nature susceptible of a
reply based on law” (Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1975, p. 18, para. 15) and therefore appear to be questions of a legal
character for the purposes of Article 96 of the Charter and Article 65 of
the Statute.

26. Nevertheless, some of the participants in the present proceedings
have suggested that the question posed by the General Assembly is not,
in reality, a legal question. According to this submission, international
law does not regulate the act of making a declaration of independence,
which should be regarded as a political act; only domestic constitutional

law governs the act of making such a declaration, while the Court’s juris-
diction to give an advisory opinion is confined to questions of interna-
tional law. In the present case, however, the Court has not been asked to
give an opinion on whether the declaration of independence is in accord-
ance with any rule of domestic law but only whether it is in accordance
with international law. The Court can respond to that question by refer-

ence to international law without the need to enquire into any system of
domestic law.
27. Moreover, the Court has repeatedly stated that the fact that a
question has political aspects does not suffice to deprive it of its character
as a legal question (Application for Review of Judgement No. 158 of the

United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1973, p. 172, para. 14). Whatever its political aspects, the Court cannot
refuse to respond to the legal elements of a question which invites it to
discharge an essentially judicial task, namely, in the present case, an
assessment of an act by reference to international law. The Court has also

made clear that, in determining the jurisdictional issue of whether it is
confronted with a legal question, it is not concerned with the political
nature of the motives which may have inspired the request or the political
implications which its opinion might have (Conditions of Admission of a
State to Membership in the United Nations (Article 4 of the Charter),

Advisory Opinion, 1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948 , p. 61, and Legality of
the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1996 (I), p. 234, para. 13).
28. The Court therefore considers that it has jurisdiction to give an
advisory opinion in response to the request made by the General Assem-
bly.

B. Discretion

29. The fact that the Court has jurisdiction does not mean, however,
that it is obliged to exercise it:

“The Court has recalled many times in the past that Article 65,
paragraph 1, of its Statute, which provides that ‘The Court may give
an advisory opinion . . .’ (emphasis added), should be interpreted to

16dique. Comme la Cour l’a relevé par le passé, des questions «libellées en
termes juridiques et soul[evant] des problèmes de droit internatio-

nal ... sont, par leur nature même, susceptibles de recevoir une réponse
fondée en droit» (Sahara occidental, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1975 ,
p. 18, par. 15), et donc revêtent un caractère juridique, au sens de l’ar-
ticle 96 de la Charte et de l’article 65 du Statut.

26. Certains participants à la présente procédure ont néanmoins laissé
entendre que la question posée par l’Assemblée générale n’était pas, en
réalité, de nature juridique. Selon eux, l’acte consistant à proclamer
l’indépendance n’est pas régi par le droit international et devrait être

considéré comme un acte politique, relevant uniquement du droit consti-
tutionnel interne, alors que la compétence consultative de la Cour se
limite aux questions de droit international. En l’espèce, toutefois, la Cour
n’a pas été priée de déterminer si la déclaration d’indépendance était
conforme à une quelconque règle de droit interne, mais seulement si elle

était conforme au droit international. La Cour peut donc répondre à
cette question en se fondant sur le droit international sans avoir à exa-
miner aucun système de droit interne.

27. Par ailleurs, comme la Cour l’a maintes fois déclaré, qu’une ques-

tion revête des aspects politiques ne suffit pas à oui ôter son caractère juri-
dique (Demande de réformation du jugement n 158 du Tribunal admi-
nistratif des Nations Unies, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1973 , p. 172,
par. 14). La Cour ne saurait refuser de répondre aux éléments juridiques
d’une question qui, quels qu’en soient les aspects politiques, l’invite à

s’acquitter d’une tâche essentiellement judiciaire, à savoir, en la présente
espèce, l’appréciation d’un acte au regard du droit international. La Cour
a également précisé que, pour trancher le point — qui touche à sa com-
pétence — de savoir si la question qui lui est posée est d’ordre juridique,
elle ne doit tenir compte ni de la nature politique des motifs qui pour-

raient avoir inspiré la demande, ni des conséquences politiques que pour-
rait avoir son avis (Conditions de l’admission d’un Etat comme Membre
des Nations Unies (article 4 de la Charte), avis consultatif, 1948, C.I.J.
Recueil 1947-1948, p. 61, et Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes
nucléaires, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I) , p. 234, par. 13).

28. La Cour estime donc qu’elle a compétence pour donner un avis
consultatif en réponse à la demande de l’Assemblée générale.

B. Pouvoir discrétionnaire

29. Que la Cour ait compétence ne signifie pas, cependant, qu’elle soit

tenue de l’exercer:
«La Cour a maintes fois eu par le passé l’occasion de rappeler que

le paragraphe 1 de l’article 65 de son Statut, selon lequel «[l]a Cour
peut donner un avis consultatif...» (les italiques sont de la Cour),

16 mean that the Court has a discretionary power to decline to give an
advisory opinion even if the conditions of jurisdiction are met.”

(Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied
Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
p. 156, para. 44.)

The discretion whether or not to respond to a request for an advisory
opinion exists so as to protect the integrity of the Court’s judicial func-
tion and its nature as the principal judicial organ of the United Nations
(Status of Eastern Carelia, Advisory Opinion, 1923, P.C.I.J., Series B,

No. 5,p.29;Application for Review of Judgement No. 158 of the United
Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1973 ,
p. 175, para. 24; Application for Review of Judgement No. 273 of the
United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1982, p. 334, para. 22; and Legal Consequences of the Construction of a
Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J.

Reports 2004 (I), pp. 156-157, paras. 44-45).
30. The Court is, nevertheless, mindful of the fact that its answer to
a request for an advisory opinion “represents its participation in the
activities of the Organization, and, in principle, should not be refused”
(Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania,

First Phase, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 195,0p.71;Difference Relat-
ing to Immunity from Legal Process of a Special Rapporteur of the Commis-
sion on Human Rights, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1999 (I) ,
pp. 78-79, para. 29; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in
the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports

2004 (I), p. 156, para. 44). Accordingly, the consistent jurisprudence
of the Court has determined that only “compelling reasons” should lead
the Court to refuse its opinion in response to a request falling within its
jurisdiction (Judgments of the Administrative Tribunal of the ILO upon
ComplaintsMadeagainstUnesco,I.C.J.Reports1956 ,p.86; LegalConse-

quences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 156, para. 44).
31. The Court must satisfy itself as to the propriety of the exercise of
its judicial function in the present case. It has therefore given careful con-
sideration as to whether, in the light of its previous jurisprudence, there
are compelling reasons for it to refuse to respond to the request from the

General Assembly.
32. One argument, advanced by a number of participants in the present
proceedings, concerns the motives behind the request. Those participants
drew attention to a statement made by the sole sponsor of the resolution
by which the General Assembly requested the Court’s opinion to the

effect that
“the Court’s advisory opinion would provide politically neutral, yet

judicially authoritative, guidance to many countries still deliberating
how to approach unilateral declarations of independence in line with
international law.

17 devait être interprété comme reconnaissant à la Cour le pouvoir dis-
crétionnaire de refuser de donner un avis consultatif même lorsque

les conditions pour qu’elle soit compétente sont remplies.» (Consé-
quences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le territoire palesti-
nien occupé, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 156, par. 44.)

Le pouvoir discrétionnaire de répondre ou non à une demande d’avis
consultatif vise à protéger l’intégrité de la fonction judiciaire de la Cour
et sa nature en tant qu’organe judiciaire principal de l’Organisation des

Nations Unies (Statot de la Carélie orientale, avis consultatif, 1923, o
C.P.J.I. série B n 5,p.29; Demande de réformation du jugement n 158
du Tribunal administratif des Nations Unies, avis consultatif, C.I.J.
Recueil 1973, p. 175, par. 24; Demande de réformation du jugement
o
n 273 du Tribunal administratif des Nations Unies, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 1982, p. 334, par. 22; et Conséquences juridiques de l’édi-
fication d’un mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 156-157, par. 44-45).
30. La Cour n’en garde pas moins à l’esprit que sa réponse à une

demande d’avis consultatif «constitue [sa] participation ... à l’action de
l’Organisation et, en principe, ... ne devrait pas être refusée» (Interpréta-
tion des traités de paix conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Rou-
manie, première phase, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1950 ,p.71; Dif-

férend relatif à l’immunité de juridiction d’un rapporteur spécial de la
Commission des droits de l’homme, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil
1999 (I), p. 78-79, par. 29; Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un
mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil
2004 (I), p. 156, par. 44). Ainsi, conformément à sa jurisprudence cons-

tante, seules des «raisons décisives» peuvent la conduire à opposer un
refus à une demande d’avis relevant de sa compétence (Jugements du Tri-
bunal administratif de l’OIT sur requêtes contre l’Unesco, avis consulta-
tif, C.I.J. Recueil 1956 ,.86;Conséquences juridiques de l’édification

d’un mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé, avis consultatif, C.I.J.
Recueil 2004 (I), p. 156, par. 44).
31. La Cour doit s’assurer de l’opportunité d’exercer sa fonction judi-
ciaire en l’espèce. Elle a donc examiné attentivement si, à la lumière de sa
jurisprudence, il existait des raisons décisives pour refuser de répondre à

la demande de l’Assemblée générale.

32. Un argument avancé par plusieurs participants à la présente pro-
cédure porte sur les motifs qui ont inspiré la demande. Ces participants

ont appelé l’attention sur la déclaration ci-après, qui émane du seul Etat
ayant proposé la résolution par laquelle l’Assemblée générale a demandé
l’avis de la Cour:

«un avis consultatif de la Cour fournirait un avis politiquement neu-
tre mais autorisé du point de vue juridique à de nombreux pays qui
se demandent encore comment considérer la déclaration unilatérale
d’indépendance du Kosovo au regard du droit international.

17 .............................

Supporting this draft resolution would also serve to reaffirm a
fundamental principle: the right of any Member State of the United
Nations to pose a simple, basic question on a matter it considers
vitally important to the Court. To vote against it would be in effect
a vote to deny the right of any country to seek — now or in the

future — judicial recourse through the United Nations system.”
(A/63/PV.22, p. 1.)

According to those participants, this statement demonstrated that the
opinion of the Court was being sought not in order to assist the General
Assembly but rather to serve the interests of one State and that the Court
should, therefore, decline to respond.

33. The advisory jurisdiction is not a form of judicial recourse for
States but the means by which the General Assembly and the Security
Council, as well as other organs of the United Nations and bodies spe-
cifically empowered to do so by the General Assembly in accordance with
Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter, may obtain the Court’s opinion

in order to assist them in their activities. The Court’s opinion is given not
to States but to the organ which has requested it (Interpretation of Peace
Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungary and Romania, First Phase, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950 , p. 71). Nevertheless, precisely for that rea-
son, the motives of individual States which sponsor, or vote in favour of,

a resolution requesting an advisory opinion are not relevant to the
Court’s exercise of its discretion whether or not to respond. As the Court
put it in its Advisory Opinion on Legality of the Threat or Use of
Nuclear Weapons,

“once the Assembly has asked, by adopting a resolution, for an advi-

sory opinion on a legal question, the Court, in determining whether
there are any compelling reasons for it to refuse to give such an
opinion, will not have regard to the origins or to the political history
of the request, or to the distribution of votes in respect of the
adopted resolution” (I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I), p. 237, para. 16).

34. It was also suggested by some of those participating in the pro-

ceedings that resolution 63/3 gave no indication of the purpose for which
the General Assembly needed the Court’s opinion and that there was
nothing to indicate that the opinion would have any useful legal effect.
This argument cannot be accepted. The Court has consistently made
clear that it is for the organ which requests the opinion, and not for the

Court, to determine whether it needs the opinion for the proper perform-
ance of its functions. In its Advisory Opinion on Legality of the Threat
or Use of Nuclear Weapons , the Court rejected an argument that it

18 .............................

Appuyer le projet de résolution permettrait aussi de réaffirmer un
autre principe fondamental: le droit de chaque Etat Membre de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies de poser à la Cour une question
simple, élémentaire sur un problème qu’il considère comme étant

d’une importance vitale. Voter contre ce projet reviendrait de fait à
dénier le droit de tout pays de rechercher, maintenant ou à l’avenir,
un recours judiciaire par l’intermédiaire du système des Nations
Unies.» (A/63/PV.22, p. 1.)

Selon ces participants, cette déclaration démontre que l’avis de la Cour
est sollicité non pas pour aider l’Assemblée générale, mais pour servir les

intérêts d’un seul Etat et que la Cour devrait, en conséquence, refuser d’y
répondre.
33. La compétence consultative n’est pas une forme de recours judi-
ciaire à la disposition des Etats, mais un moyen permettant à l’Assemblée
générale et au Conseil de sécurité, ainsi qu’à d’autres organes de

l’Organisation des Nations Unies et à des institutions ayant reçu une
autorisation spéciale de l’Assemblée générale en vertu du paragraphe 2
de l’article 96 de la Charte, d’obtenir l’avis de la Cour pour les assister
dans leurs activités. L’avis est donné par la Cour non aux Etats, mais à
l’organe qui l’a demandé (Interprétation des traités de paix conclus avec

la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie, première phase, avis consultatif,
C.I.J. Recueil 1950, p. 71). C’est justement pour cette raison que les
motifs ayant inspiré les Etats qui sont à l’origine, ou votent en fa-
veur, d’une résolution portant demande d’avis consultatif ne sont pas
pertinents au regard de l’exercice par la Cour de son pouvoir discrétion-

naire de répondre ou non à la question qui lui est posée. Comme la
Cour l’a relevé dans son avis consultatif sur la Licéité de la menace ou
de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires ,

«dès lors que l’Assemblée a demandé un avis consultatif sur une
question juridique par la voie d’une résolution qu’elle a adoptée,
la Cour ne prendra pas en considération, pour déterminer s’il existe

des raisons décisives de refuser de donner cet avis, les origines ou
l’histoire politique de la demande, ou la répartition des voix lors de
l’adoption de la résolution» (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I), p. 237,
par. 16).

34. Certains participants à la présente procédure ont également avancé
que la résolution 63/3 n’indiquait pas à quelles fins l’Assemblée générale
avait besoin de l’avis de la Cour, ni si cet avis aurait un effet juridique

utile. Cet argument ne saurait être retenu. La Cour a toujours considéré
que ce n’était pas à elle, mais à l’organe demandant l’avis qu’il apparte-
nait de déterminer si celui-ci était nécessaire au bon exercice des fonctions
de cet organe. Dans son avis consultatif sur la Licéité de la menace ou

de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires , la Cour a rejeté dans les termes ci-après
un argument selon lequel elle devait refuser de répondre à la demande

18should refuse to respond to the General Assembly’s request on the
ground that the General Assembly had not explained to the Court the

purposes for which it sought an opinion, stating that
“it is not for the Court itself to purport to decide whether or not an

advisory opinion is needed by the Assembly for the performance of
its functions. The General Assembly has the right to decide for itself
on the usefulness of an opinion in the light of its own needs.” (I.C.J.
Reports 1996 (I), p. 237, para. 16.)

Similarly, in the Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequences of the
Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory , the Court
commented that “[t]he Court cannot substitute its assessment of the

usefulness of the opinion requested for that of the organ that seeks
such opinion, namely the General Assembly” (I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I),
p. 163, para. 62).
35. Nor does the Court consider that it should refuse to respond to the
General Assembly’s request on the basis of suggestions, advanced by
some of those participating in the proceedings, that its opinion might

lead to adverse political consequences. Just as the Court cannot substi-
tute its own assessment for that of the requesting organ in respect of
whether its opinion will be useful to that organ, it cannot — in particular
where there is no basis on which to make such an assessment — substi-
tute its own view as to whether an opinion would be likely to have an

adverse effect. As the Court stated in its Advisory Opinion on Legality of
the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons , in response to a submission that
a reply from the Court might adversely affect disarmament negotiations,
faced with contrary positions on this issue “there are no evident criteria
by which it can prefer one assessment to another” (Legality of the Threat

or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1996 (I) ,
p. 237, para. 17; see also Western Sahara, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Rep-
orts 1975, p. 37, para. 73; and Legal Consequences of the Construc-
tion of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I), pp. 159-160, paras. 51-54).

36. An important issue which the Court must consider is whether, in
view of the respective roles of the Security Council and the General
Assembly in relation to the situation in Kosovo, the Court, as the
principal judicial organ of the United Nations, should decline to answer

the question which has been put to it on the ground that the request for
the Court’s opinion has been made by the General Assembly rather than the
Security Council.
37. The situation in Kosovo had been the subject of action by the
Security Council, in the exercise of its responsibility for the maintenance

of international peace and security, for more than ten years prior to the
present request for an advisory opinion. The Council first took action
specifically relating to the situation in Kosovo on 31 March 1998, when it

19de l’Assemblée générale au motif que celle-ci ne lui avait pas indiqué
àquelles fins elle sollicitait un avis consultatif:

«il n’appartient pas à la Cour de prétendre décider si l’Assemblée a

ou non besoin d’un avis consultatif pour s’acquitter de ses fonctions.
L’Assemblée générale est habilitée à décider elle-même de l’utilité
d’un avis au regard de ses besoins propres.» (C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I),
p. 237, par. 16.)

De même, dans l’avis consultatif sur les Conséquences juridiques de l’édi-
fication d’un mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé , la Cour a fait
observer «[qu’elle] ne [pouvait] substituer sa propre appréciation de l’uti-

lité de l’avis demandé à celle de l’organe qui le sollicite, en l’occurrence
l’Assemblée générale» (C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I), p. 163, par. 62).

35. La Cour n’estime pas davantage qu’elle devrait refuser de répon-
dre à la demande de l’Assemblée générale sur la base d’arguments, avan-
cés par certains participants à la présente procédure, selon lesquels son

avis risquerait d’avoir des conséquences politiques négatives. De même
que la Cour ne peut substituer sa propre appréciation de l’utilité de l’avis
demandé pour l’organe requérant à celle de ce dernier, elle ne peut
— tout particulièrement en l’absence d’éléments sur lesquels fonder cette
appréciation — faire prévaloir son propre point de vue sur les conséquen-

ces négatives que risquerait d’emporter son avis. Dans son avis consulta-
tif sur la Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes nucléaires , alors
qu’il avait été avancé qu’une réponse de sa part risquerait d’être préjudi-
ciable aux négociations sur le désarmement, et que des positions contrai-
res s’exprimaient à ce sujet, la Cour a indiqué qu’«il n’[était] pas de

critère évident qui [lui] permettrait de donner la préférence à une position
plutôt qu’à une autre» (Licéité de la menace ou de l’emploi d’armes
nucléaires, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1996 (I) , p. 237, par. 17; voir
aussi Sahara occidental, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1975 ,p .,
par. 73; et Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le ter-

ritoire palestinien occupé, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 159-
160, par. 51-54).
36. Une question importante à examiner est celle de savoir si, compte
tenu des rôles respectifs du Conseil de sécurité et de l’Assemblée générale
à l’égard de la situation au Kosovo, la Cour, en tant qu’organe judi-
ciaire principal de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, devrait refuser de

répondre à la question qui lui a été posée, au motif que la demande
d’avis consultatif émane de l’Assemblée générale et non du Conseil de
sécurité.
37. Au moment du dépôt de la présente demande d’avis consultatif, le
Conseil de sécurité, dans l’exercice de sa responsabilité en matière de

maintien de la paix et de la sécurité internationales, agissait déjà depuis
plus de dix ans à l’égard de la situation au Kosovo. Sa première interven-
tion concernant spécifiquement la situation au Kosovo remonte au

19adopted resolution 1160 (1998). That was followed by resolutions
1199 (1998), 1203 (1998) and 1239 (1999). On 10 June 1999, the Council

adopted resolution 1244 (1999), which authorized the creation of an
international military presence (subsequently known as “KFOR”) and an
international civil presence (the United Nations Interim Administration
Mission in Kosovo, “UNMIK”) and laid down a framework for the
administration of Kosovo. By resolution 1367 (2001), the Security Council

decided to terminate the prohibitions on the sale or supply of arms est-
ablished by paragraph 8 of resolution 1160 (1998). The Security Council
has received periodic reports from the Secretary-General on the activities
of UNMIK. The dossier submitted to the Court by the Secretary-
General records that the Security Council met to consider the situation in

Kosovo on 29 occasions between 2000 and the end of 2008. Although the
declaration of independence which is the subject of the present request
was discussed by the Security Council, the Council took no action in
respect of it (Security Council, provisional verbatim record, 18 Febru-
ary 2008, 3 p.m. (S/PV.5839); Security Council, provisional verbatim
record, 11 March 2008, 3 p.m. (S/PV.5850)).

38. The General Assembly has also adopted resolutions relating to the
situation in Kosovo. Prior to the adoption by the Security Council of
resolution 1244 (1999), the General Assembly adopted five resolutions on
the situation of human rights in Kosovo (resolutions 49/204, 50/190,

51/111, 52/139 and 53/164). Following resolution 1244 (1999), the Gen-
eral Assembly adopted one further resolution on the situation of human
rights in Kosovo (resolution 54/183 of 17 December 1999) and 15 reso-
lutions concerning the financing of UNMIK (resolutions 53/241, 54/245A,
54/245B, 55/227A, 55/227B, 55/295, 57/326, 58/305, 59/286A, 59/286B,

60/275, 61/285, 62/262, 63/295 and 64/279). However, the broader situa-
tion in Kosovo was not part of the agenda of the General Assembly at
the time of the declaration of independence and it was therefore neces-
sary in September 2008 to create a new agenda item for the consideration
of the proposal to request an opinion from the Court.

39. Against this background, it has been suggested that, given the
respective powers of the Security Council and the General Assembly, if
the Court’s opinion were to be sought regarding whether the declaration
of independence was in accordance with international law, the request
should rather have been made by the Security Council and that this fact
constitutes a compelling reason for the Court not to respond to the

request from the General Assembly. That conclusion is said to follow
both from the nature of the Security Council’s involvement and the fact
that, in order to answer the question posed, the Court will necessarily
have to interpret and apply Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) in
order to determine whether or not the declaration of independence is in

accordance with international law.
40. While the request put to the Court concerns one aspect of a situa-
tion which the Security Council has characterized as a threat to interna-

2031 mars 1998, avec l’adoption de la résolution 1160 (1998). Celle-ci fut
suivie des résolutions 1199 (1998), 1203 (1998) et 1239 (1999). Le 10 juin

1999, le Conseil adopta la résolution 1244 (1999), qui prévoyait la mise
en place d’une présence militaire internationale (dénommée par la suite
«KFOR») et d’une présence internationale civile (la Mission d’adminis-
tration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo, ci-après dénommée
«MINUK») et établissait un cadre pour l’administration du Kosovo. Par

sa résolution 1367 (2001), le Conseil de sécurité décida de lever l’interdic-
tion de la vente ou de la fourniture d’armes imposée par le paragraphe 8
de la résolution 1160 (1998). Le Secrétaire général a communiqué au
Conseil de sécurité des rapports périodiques sur les activités de la

MINUK. Dans le dossier soumis à la Cour par le Secrétaire général, il est
indiqué que le Conseil de sécurité s’est réuni vingt-neuf fois entre 2000 et
la fin 2008 pour examiner la situation au Kosovo. Bien que la déclaration
d’indépendance qui fait l’objet de la présente demande d’avis consultatif
ait été discutée par le Conseil de sécurité, celui-ci n’a pris aucune mesure

à cet égard (Conseil de sécurité, procès-verbal provisoire, 18 février 2008,
15 heures (S/PV.5839); Conseil de sécurité, procès-verbal provisoire,
11 mars 2008, 15 heures (S/PV.5850)).
38. L’Assemblée générale a elle aussi adopté des résolutions se rappor-
tant à la situation au Kosovo. Avant que le Conseil de sécurité n’adopte la

résolution 1244 (1999), l’Assemblée générale avait adopté cinq résolutions
sur la situation des droits de l’homme au Kosovo (résolutions 49/204,
50/190, 51/111, 52/139 et 53/164). A la suite de la résolution 1244 (1999),
elle adopta une autre résolution sur la situation des droits de l’homme au
Kosovo (résolution 54/183 du 17 décembre 1999) et quinze résolutions

concernant le financement de la MINUK (résolutions 53/241, 54/245A,
54/245B, 55/227A, 55/227B, 55/295, 57/326, 58/305, 59/286A, 59/286B,
60/275, 61/285, 62/262, 63/295 et 64/279). Au moment de la déclaration
d’indépendance, toutefois, la situation d’ensemble au Kosovo ne figurait
pas à l’ordre du jour de l’Assemblée générale et il fut donc nécessaire,

en septembre 2008, d’y ajouter un point supplémentaire afin que puisse
être examinée la proposition de demander un avis consultatif à la Cour.
39. A cet égard, il a été avancé que, en raison des pouvoirs respectifs
du Conseil de sécurité et de l’Assemblée générale, une requête tendant à
obtenir l’avis de la Cour sur la conformité au droit international de la

déclaration d’indépendance aurait dû émaner du Conseil de sécurité et
non de l’Assemblée générale, et qu’il y avait donc là une raison décisive
pour la Cour de refuser d’y donner suite. Cette conclusion est présentée
comme fondée à la fois sur la nature de l’engagement du Conseil de sécu-
rité et sur le fait que, aux fins de répondre à la question posée, la Cour

devra nécessairement, pour déterminer si la déclaration d’indépendance
est conforme ou non au droit international, interpréter et appliquer la
résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité.

40. S’il est vrai que la demande soumise à la Cour porte sur un aspect
d’une situation que le Conseil de sécurité a qualifiée de menace pour la

20tional peace and security and which continues to feature on the agenda of
the Council in that capacity, that does not mean that the General Assem-

bly has no legitimate interest in the question. Articles 10 and 11 of the
Charter, to which the Court has already referred, confer upon the
General Assembly a very broad power to discuss matters within the scope
of the activities of the United Nations, including questions relating to
international peace and security. That power is not limited by the res-

ponsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security which
is conferred upon the Security Council by Article 24, paragraph 1. As the
Court has made clear in its Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequences of
the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory , para-
graph 26, “Article 24 refers to a primary, but not necessarily exclusive,

competence”. The fact that the situation in Kosovo is before the Security
Council and the Council has exercised its Chapter VII powers in respect
of that situation does not preclude the General Assembly from discussing
any aspect of that situation, including the declaration of independence.
The limit which the Charter places upon the General Assembly to protect
the role of the Security Council is contained in Article 12 and restricts the

power of the General Assembly to make recommendations following a
discussion, not its power to engage in such a discussion.
41. Moreover, Article 12 does not bar all action by the General
Assembly in respect of threats to international peace and security which
are before the Security Council. The Court considered this question in

some detail in paragraphs 26 to 27 of its Advisory Opinion on Legal
Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian
Territory, in which the Court noted that there has been an increasing ten-
dency over time for the General Assembly and the Security Council to
deal in parallel with the same matter concerning the maintenance of

international peace and security and observed that it is often the case
that, while the Security Council has tended to focus on the aspects of
such matters related to international peace and security, the General
Assembly has taken a broader view, considering also their humanitarian,
social and economic aspects.

42. The Court’s examination of this subject in its Advisory Opinion on
Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Pal-
estinian Territory was made in connection with an argument relating to
whether or not the Court possessed the jurisdiction to give an advisory
opinion, rather than whether it should exercise its discretion not to give
an opinion. In the present case, the Court has already held that Article 12

of the Charter does not deprive it of the jurisdiction conferred by Arti-
cle 96, paragraph 1 (paragraphs 23 to 24 above). It considers, however,
that the analysis contained in the 2004 Advisory Opinion is also pertinent
to the issue of discretion in the present case. That analysis demonstrates
that the fact that a matter falls within the primary responsibility of the

Security Council for situations which may affect the maintenance of
international peace and security and that the Council has been exercising
its powers in that respect does not preclude the General Assembly from

21paix et la sécurité internationales et qui, à ce titre, reste inscrite à son
ordre du jour, cela ne signifie pas pour autant que l’Assemblée générale

ne puisse légitimement s’intéresser à cette question. Les articles 10 et 11
de la Charte, auxquels la Cour a déjà renvoyé, confèrent à l’Assemblée
générale le pouvoir très étendu de discuter les affaires rentrant dans le
cadre des activités des Nations Unies, y compris toutes questions se rat-
tachant à la paix et à la sécurité internationales. Ce pouvoir n’est pas

limité par la responsabilité en matière de maintien de la paix et de la sécu-
rité internationales conférée au Conseil de sécurité par le paragraphe 1 de
l’article 24. Ainsi que la Cour l’a précisé au paragraphe 26 de son avis
consultatif sur les Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans
le territoire palestinien occupé , «l’article 24 fait mention d’une compé-

tence principale, mais pas nécessairement exclusive». Que le Conseil de
sécurité soit saisi de la situation au Kosovo, et qu’il ait exercé à cet égard
les attributions qu’il tient du chapitre VII, n’interdit pas à l’Assemblée
générale d’examiner tout aspect de cette situation, notamment la décla-
ration d’indépendance. La limite que la Charte pose à l’Assemblée géné-
rale pour protéger le rôle du Conseil de sécurité est énoncée à l’article 12

et elle s’applique au pouvoir de faire des recommandations à la suite d’un
débat, non à celui d’engager un tel débat.
41. En outre, l’article 12 n’interdit pas à l’Assemblée générale de pren-
dre toute action en réponse à des menaces pour la paix et la sécurité inter-
nationales dont le Conseil de sécurité est saisi. La Cour a longuement

examiné cette question aux paragraphes 26 et 27 de son avis consultatif
sur les Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le territoire
palestinien occupé, où elle a relevé l’existence d’une tendance croissante à
voir l’Assemblée générale et le Conseil de sécurité examiner parallèlement
une même question relative au maintien de la paix et de la sécurité inter-

nationales et souligné qu’il était souvent arrivé que, alors que le Conseil
de sécurité tendait à privilégier les aspects de ces questions touchant à la
paix et à la sécurité internationales, l’Assemblée générale les envisageait
sous un angle plus large et en examinait également les aspects humani-
taires, sociaux et économiques.

42. La Cour a examiné ce point dans son avis consultatif sur les
Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le territoire pales-
tinien occupé, en réponse à un argument relatif à sa compétence pour
donner l’avis en question, et non à l’opportunité d’user de son pouvoir
discrétionnaire de ne pas exercer cette compétence. En la présente espèce,
la Cour a déjà indiqué que l’article 12 de la Charte ne la privait pas de la

compétence que lui confère le paragraphe 1 de l’article 96 (paragra-
phes 23 et 24 ci-dessus). La Cour estime toutefois que le raisonnement
tenu dans l’avis consultatif de 2004 s’applique également à la question du
pouvoir discrétionnaire en l’espèce. Ce raisonnement démontre que, même
si une question relève de la responsabilité principale du Conseil de sécu-

rité à l’égard des situations risquant de compromettre le maintien de la
paix et de la sécurité internationales, et même si le Conseil exerce effec-
tivement cette responsabilité dans la situation en cause, cela n’empêche

21discussing that situation or, within the limits set by Article 12, making
recommendations with regard thereto. In addition, as the Court pointed

out in its 2004 Advisory Opinion, General Assembly resolution 377A (V)
(“Uniting for Peace”) provides for the General Assembly to make rec-
ommendations for collective measures to restore international peace and
security in any case where there appears to be a threat to the peace,
breach of the peace or act of aggression and the Security Council is

unable to act because of lack of unanimity of the permanent members
(Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Pal-
estinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 150,
para. 30). These considerations are of relevance to the question whether
the delimitation of powers between the Security Council and the General

Assembly constitutes a compelling reason for the Court to decline to
respond to the General Assembly’s request for an opinion in the present
case.
43. It is true, of course, that the facts of the present case are quite
different from those of the Advisory Opinion on Legal Consequences of
the Construction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory . The

situation in the occupied Palestinian territory had been under active con-
sideration by the General Assembly for several decades prior to its deci-
sion to request an opinion from the Court and the General Assembly had
discussed the precise subject on which the Court’s opinion was sought. In
the present case, with regard to the situation in Kosovo, it was the Secu-

rity Council which had been actively seised of the matter. In that context,
it discussed the future status of Kosovo and the declaration of independ-
ence (see paragraph 37 above).
44. However, the purpose of the advisory jurisdiction is to enable
organs of the United Nations and other authorized bodies to obtain

opinions from the Court which will assist them in the future exercise of
their functions. The Court cannot determine what steps the General
Assembly may wish to take after receiving the Court’s opinion or what
effect that opinion may have in relation to those steps. As the preceding
paragraphs demonstrate, the General Assembly is entitled to discuss the

declaration of independence and, within the limits considered in para-
graph 42, above, to make recommendations in respect of that or other
aspects of the situation in Kosovo without trespassing on the powers of
the Security Council. That being the case, the fact that, hitherto, the decla-
ration of independence has been discussed only in the Security Council
and that the Council has been the organ which has taken action with

regard to the situation in Kosovo does not constitute a compelling reason
for the Court to refuse to respond to the request from the General
Assembly.
45. Moreover, while it is the scope for future discussion and action
which is the determining factor in answering this objection to the Court

rendering an opinion, the Court also notes that the General Assembly
has taken action with regard to the situation in Kosovo in the past. As
stated in paragraph 38 above, between 1995 and 1999, the General

22pas l’Assemblée générale de l’examiner, voire, dans les limites fixées par
l’article 12, de faire des recommandations à ce sujet. De surcroît, comme

la Cour l’a relevé dans son avis consultatif de 2004, la résolution 377A (V)
de l’Assemblée générale («L’union pour le maintien de la paix») lui per-
met de faire des recommandations sur les mesures collectives à prendre
pour rétablir la paix et la sécurité internationales dans tout cas où paraît
exister une menace contre la paix, une rupture de la paix ou un acte

d’agression et où le Conseil de sécurité ne peut agir faute d’unanimité
parmi ses membres permanents (Conséquences juridiques de l’édification
d’un mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé, avis consultatif, C.I.J.
Recueil 2004 (I), p. 150, par. 30). Ces considérations sont pertinentes au
regard de la question de savoir si la délimitation des pouvoirs entre le

Conseil de sécurité et l’Assemblée générale constitue pour la Cour une
raison décisive de refuser de répondre à la demande d’avis présentée par
l’Assemblée générale en l’espèce.
43. Certes, les faits de la présente espèce sont fort différents de ceux de
la procédure consultative relative aux Conséquences juridiques de l’édifi-
cation d’un mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé . L’Assemblée géné-

rale se préoccupait activement depuis plusieurs dizaines d’années de la
situation dans le territoire palestinien occupé lorsqu’elle a décidé de
demander à la Cour un avis et avait par ailleurs débattu du sujet précis
sur lequel l’avis de la Cour était sollicité. En la présente espèce, concer-
nant la situation au Kosovo, c’est le Conseil de sécurité qui a été active-

ment saisi de la question, et c’est dans ces conditions qu’il a examiné le
statut futur du Kosovo et la déclaration d’indépendance (voir paragra-
phe 37 ci-dessus).
44. Quoi qu’il en soit, la compétence consultative a pour finalité de
permettre aux organes de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et à d’autres

institutions autorisées d’obtenir des avis de la Cour qui les aideront dans
l’exercice futur de leurs fonctions. La Cour ne peut déterminer quelles
mesures l’Assemblée générale pourrait juger utile de prendre après avoir
reçu son avis, ni quelle pourrait être l’incidence de celui-ci sur de telles
mesures. Ainsi qu’il a été démontré aux paragraphes précédents, l’Assem-

blée générale est habilitée à débattre de la déclaration d’indépendance et,
dans les limites rappelées au paragraphe 42 ci-dessus, à faire des recom-
mandations sur cet acte ou sur d’autres aspects de la situation au Kosovo
sans empiéter sur les pouvoirs du Conseil de sécurité. Dans ces condi-
tions, le fait que la déclaration d’indépendance ait été jusqu’ici examinée
uniquement par le Conseil de sécurité et que cet organe soit celui qui a

pris des mesures relatives à la situation au Kosovo ne constitue pas pour
la Cour une raison décisive de refuser de répondre à la demande de
l’Assemblée générale.
45. De plus, même si l’élément déterminant pour répondre à l’argu-
ment selon lequel la Cour ne devrait pas donner d’avis est la perspective

d’un débat et d’une action futurs, il convient aussi de relever que l’Assem-
blée générale a, par le passé, pris des mesures au regard de la situation au
Kosovo. Comme indiqué au paragraphe 38 ci-dessus, l’Assemblée géné-

22Assembly adopted six resolutions addressing the human rights situation
in Kosovo. The last of these, resolution 54/183, was adopted on 17 Decem-

ber 1999, some six months after the Security Council had adopted resolu-
tion 1244 (1999). While the focus of this resolution was on human rights
and humanitarian issues, it also addressed (in para. 7) the General
Assembly’s concern about a possible “cantonization” of Kosovo. In
addition, since 1999 the General Assembly has each year approved, in

accordance with Article 17, paragraph 1, of the Charter, the budget of
UNMIK (see paragraph 38 above). The Court observes therefore that
the General Assembly has exercised functions of its own in the situation
in Kosovo.

46. Further, in the view of the Court, the fact that it will necessarily
have to interpret and apply the provisions of Security Council resolu-
tion 1244 (1999) in the course of answering the question put by the Gen-
eral Assembly does not constitute a compelling reason not to respond to
that question. While the interpretation and application of a decision of
one of the political organs of the United Nations is, in the first place, the

responsibility of the organ which took that decision, the Court, as the
principal judicial organ of the United Nations, has also frequently been
required to consider the interpretation and legal effects of such decisions.
It has done so both in the exercise of its advisory jurisdiction (see for
example, Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, para-

graph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1962 , p. 175;
and Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council
Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 , pp. 51-54,
paras. 107-116), and in the exercise of its contentious jurisdiction (see for

example, Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Mon-
treal Convention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan
Arab Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of
14 April 1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992 , p. 15, paras. 39-41; Questions of
Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising

from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United
States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April 1992, I.C.J.
Reports 1992, pp. 126-127, paras. 42-44).
47. There is, therefore, nothing incompatible with the integrity of the
judicial function in the Court undertaking such a task. The question is,
rather, whether it should decline to undertake that task unless it is the

organ which has taken the decision that asks the Court to do so. In its
Advisory Opinion on Certain Expenses of the United Nations , however,
the Court responded to the question posed by the General Assembly,
even though this necessarily required it to interpret a number of Security
Council resolutions (namely, resolutions 143, 145 and 146 of 1960 and

161 and 169 of 1961) (Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Arti-
cle 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1962, pp. 175-177). The Court also notes that, in its Advisory Opinion on

23rale a adopté, entre 1995 et 1999, six résolutions consacrées à la situation
des droits de l’homme au Kosovo. La dernière en date, la résolution 54/

183, a été adoptée le 17 décembre 1999, soit six mois après l’adoption par
le Conseil de sécurité de sa résolution 1244 (1999). Si cette résolution est
essentiellement consacrée aux droits de l’homme et aux questions huma-
nitaires, l’Assemblée générale y fait également part (au paragraphe 7 du
dispositif) de sa préoccupation face à une éventuelle «partition» du

Kosovo. En outre, depuis 1999, l’Assemblée générale a approuvé chaque
année le budget de la MINUK, en application du paragraphe 1 de l’ar-
ticle 17 de la Charte (voir paragraphe 38 ci-dessus). La Cour fera par
conséquent observer que l’Assemblée générale a exercé à l’égard de la

situation au Kosovo des fonctions qui lui sont propres.
46. Par ailleurs, le fait que la Cour doive nécessairement, pour répon-
dre à la question de l’Assemblée générale, interpréter et appliquer les dis-
positions de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité, ne constitue
pas, selon elle, une raison décisive de ne pas donner suite à la demande qui

lui est adressée. Bien que la responsabilité d’interpréter et d’appliquer une
décision de l’un des organes politiques de l’Organisation des Nations
Unies incombe en premier lieu à l’organe en question, la Cour, en tant
qu’organe judiciaire principal de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, a elle
aussi été souvent amenée à interpréter de telles décisions et à en examiner

les effets juridiques. Elle l’a fait tant dans l’exercice de sa compétence
consultative (voir, par exemple, Certaines dépenses des Nations Unies
(article 17, paragraphe 2, de la Charte), avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil
1962, p. 175, et Conséquences juridiques pour les Etats de la présence
continue de l’Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain) nonobstant

la résolution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité, avis consultatif, C.I.J.
Recueil 1971, p. 51-54, par. 107-116) que dans l’exercice de sa compétence
contentieuse (voir, par exemple, Questions d’interprétation et d’applica-
tion de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de
Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Royaume-Uni), mesures conser-

vatoires, ordonnance du 14 avril 1992, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 15, par. 39-
41; Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Mon-
tréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya
arabe libyenne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), mesures conservatoires, ordon-
nance du 14 avril 1992, C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 126-127, par. 42-44).

47. La Cour peut donc le faire sans porter atteinte à l’intégrité de sa
fonction judiciaire. La véritable question est plutôt de savoir si elle devrait
s’en abstenir à moins d’y être invitée par l’organe dont émane la décision
en question. Dans son avis consultatif relatif à Certaines dépenses des
Nations Unies, la Cour a répondu à la question posée par l’Assemblée

générale alors même que cela lui imposait nécessairement d’interpréter
plusieurs résolutions du Conseil de sécurité (à savoir les résolutions 143,
145 et 146, de 1960, et les résolutions 161 et 169, de 1961) (Certaines
dépenses des Nations Unies (article 17, paragraphe 2, de la Charte), avis

consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 175-177). La Cour rappelle également
que, dans son avis consultatif sur lesConditions de l’admission d’un Etat

23Conditions of Admission of a State to Membership in the United Nations
(Article 4 of the Charter) (I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948 , pp. 61-62), it

responded to a request from the General Assembly even though that
request referred to statements made in a meeting of the Security Council
and it had been submitted that the Court should therefore exercise its dis-
cretion to decline to reply (I.C.J. Pleadings, Conditions of Admission of
a State to Membership in the United Nations (Article 4 of the Charter) ,

p. 90). Where, as here, the General Assembly has a legitimate interest in
the answer to a question, the fact that that answer may turn, in part, on
a decision of the Security Council is not sufficient to justify the Court in
declining to give its opinion to the General Assembly.

48. Accordingly, the Court considers that there are no compelling rea-
sons for it to decline to exercise its jurisdiction in respect of the present
request.

II. SCOPE AND M EANING OF THE Q UESTION

49. The Court will now turn to the scope and meaning of the question
on which the General Assembly has requested that it give its opinion.
The General Assembly has formulated that question in the following

terms:
“Is the unilateral declaration of independence by the Provisional

Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo in accordance with inter-
national law?”

50. The Court recalls that in some previous cases it has departed from
the language of the question put to it where the question was not
adequately formulated (see for example, in Interpretation of the Greco-
Turkish Agreement of 1 December 1926 (Final Protocol, Article IV),
Advisory Opinion, 1928, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 16 ) or where the Court

determined, on the basis of its examination of the background to the
request, that the request did not reflect the “legal questions really in
issue” (Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the
WHO and Egypt, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1980 , p. 89, para. 35).
Similarly, where the question asked was unclear or vague, the Court has

clarified the question before giving its opinion (Application for Review of
Judgement No. 273 of the United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advi-
sory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1982 , p. 348, para. 46).
51. In the present case, the question posed by the General Assembly is
clearly formulated. The question is narrow and specific; it asks for the

Court’s opinion on whether or not the declaration of independence is in
accordance with international law. It does not ask about the legal conse-
quences of that declaration. In particular, it does not ask whether or not
Kosovo has achieved statehood. Nor does it ask about the validity or

legal effects of the recognition of Kosovo by those States which have rec-
ognized it as an independent State. The Court notes that, in past requests

24comme Membre des Nations Unies (article 4 de la Charte) (C.I.J. Recueil

1947-1948, p. 61-62), elle a répondu à une demande de l’Assemblée géné-
rale alors que cette demande renvoyait à des déclarations faites à une
séance du Conseil de sécurité et qu’il avait été soutenu qu’elle devait donc
exercer son pouvoir discrétionnaire de refuser de répondre (C.I.J. Mémoi-
res, Conditions de l’admission d’un Etat comme Membre des Nations

Unies (article 4 de la Charte), p. 90). Lorsque, comme en la présente
espèce, la réponse à une question peut légitimement intéresser l’Assemblée
générale, le fait qu’elle puisse avoir en partie trait à une décision du
Conseil de sécurité ne suffit pas à justifier un refus de la Cour de donner

son avis à l’Assemblée générale.
48. En conséquence, la Cour estime qu’il n’existe pas de raison décisive
de refuser d’exercer sa compétence à l’égard de la présente demande.

II. P ORTÉE ET SENS DE LA QUESTION POSÉE

49. La Cour examinera à présent la portée et le sens de la question
posée par l’Assemblée générale. Celle-ci a formulé sa question dans les
termes suivants:

«La déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance des institutions provi-
soires d’administration autonome du Kosovo est-elle conforme au

droit international?»
50. La Cour rappelle que, par le passé, elle s’est écartée du libellé de

la question qui lui était posée lorsque celle-ci n’était pas correctement
formulée (voir, par exemple, Interprétation de l’accord gréco-turc du
1er décembre 1926 (protocole final, article IV), avis consultatif, 1928,
C.P.J.I. série B n 16) ou lorsqu’elle a constaté, en examinant le contexte

de la demande, que celle-ci ne mettait pas en évidence les «points de
droit ... véritablement ... en jeu» (Interprétation de l’accord du 25 mars
1951 entre l’OMS et l’Egypte, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1980 ,p.89,
par. 35). De même, lorsque la question posée était peu claire ou vague, la

Cour l’a clorifiée avant de donner son avis (Demande de réformation du
jugement n 273 du Tribunal administratif des Nations Unies, avis consul-
tatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1982 , p. 348, par. 46).

51. En la présente espèce, la question posée par l’Assemblée générale
est clairement formulée. C’est une question circonscrite et précise, visant
à obtenir l’avis de la Cour sur la conformité ou la non-conformité de la
déclaration d’indépendance du Kosovo au droit international. Cette ques-
tion ne porte pas sur les conséquences juridiques de la déclaration en

cause. En particulier, la Cour n’est pas priée de dire si le Kosovo a ou
non accédé à la qualité d’Etat, ni de se prononcer sur la validité ou les
effets juridiques de la reconnaissance du Kosovo comme Etat indépen-

24for advisory opinions, the General Assembly and the Security Council,
when they have wanted the Court’s opinion on the legal consequences of

an action, have framed the question in such a way that this aspect is
expressly stated (see, for example, Legal Consequences for States of the
Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa)
notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 ,p.16and Legal Consequences of the Con-

struction of a Wall in the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) , p. 136). Accordingly, the Court does
not consider that it is necessary to address such issues as whether or not
the declaration has led to the creation of a State or the status of the
actsofrecognitioninordertoanswerthequestionputbytheGeneralAssem-

bly. The Court accordingly sees no reason to reformulate the scope of the
question.
52. There are, however, two aspects of the question which require
comment. First, the question refers to “the unilateral declaration of inde-
pendence by the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo ”
(General Assembly resolution 63/3 of 8 October 2008, single operative

paragraph; emphasis added). In addition, the third preambular para-
graph of the General Assembly resolution “[r]ecall[s] that on
17 February 2008 the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of
Kosovo declared independence from Serbia”. Whether it was indeed the
Provisional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo which promulgated

the declaration of independence was contested by a number of those
participating in the present proceedings. The identity of the authors of
the declaration of independence, as is demonstrated below (paragraphs 102
to 109), is a matter which is capable of affecting the answer to the question
whether that declaration was in accordance with international law. It

would be incompatible with the proper exercise of the judicial function
for the Court to treat that matter as having been determined by the Gen-
eral Assembly.

53. Nor does the Court consider that the General Assembly intended

to restrict the Court’s freedom to determine this issue for itself. The
Court notes that the agenda item under which what became resolu-
tion 63/3 was discussed did not refer to the identity of the authors of the
declaration and was entitled simply “Request for an advisory opinion of
the International Court of Justice on whether the declaration of inde-
pendence of Kosovo is in accordance with international law” (General

Assembly resolution 63/3 of 8 October 2008; emphasis added). The word-
ing of this agenda item had been proposed by the Republic of Serbia, the
sole sponsor of resolution 63/3, when it requested the inclusion of a sup-
plementary item on the agenda of the 63rd session of the General Assem-
bly (Letter of the Permanent Representative of Serbia to the United

Nations addressed to the Secretary-General, 22 August 2008, A/63/195).
That agenda item then became the title of the draft resolution and, in
turn, of resolution 63/3. The common element in the agenda item and the

25dant par certains Etats. La Cour relève que, par le passé, lorsque l’Assem-
blée générale et le Conseil de sécurité ont sollicité son avis sur les consé-

quences juridiques d’une action, ces deux organes ont formulé leur
question de sorte que cet aspect soit expressément indiqué (voir par
exemple, Conséquences juridiques pour les Etats de la présence continue
de l’Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain) nonobstant la réso-
lution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil

1971, p. 16, et Conséquences juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le
territoire palestinien occupé, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) ,
p. 136). Dès lors, la Cour n’estime pas nécessaire, pour répondre à la
question de l’Assemblée générale, d’examiner le point de savoir si la
déclaration d’indépendance a ou non conduit à la création d’un Etat, ou

de se prononcer sur la valeur des actes de reconnaissance. La Cour ne
voit donc pas de raison de redéfinir la portée de la question posée.
52. Deux aspects de la question appellent toutefois des observations.
En premier lieu, mention est faite de la «déclaration unilatérale d’indé-
pendance des institutions provisoires d’administration autonome du
Kosovo» (unique paragraphe du dispositif de la résolution 63/3 du 8 octo-

bre 2008 de l’Assemblée générale; les italiques sont de la Cour). En outre,
au troisième alinéa du préambule de la résolution, l’Assemblée générale
«[r]appell[e] que, le 17 février 2008, les institutions provisoires d’adminis-
tration autonome du Kosovo ont déclaré leur indépendance vis-à-vis de
la Serbie». Que ce soient effectivement les institutions provisoires d’admi-

nistration autonome du Kosovo qui aient prononcé la déclaration d’indé-
pendance est un point qui a été contesté par un certain nombre des par-
ticipants à la présente procédure. Comme il est démontré ci-après
(paragraphes 102 à 109), l’identité des auteurs de la déclaration d’indé-
pendance est un point qui pourrait avoir une incidence sur la réponse à

la question de la conformité au droit international de cette déclaration.
Il serait incompatible avec le bon exercice de sa fonction judiciaire que
la Cour considère ce point comme ayant été tranché par l’Assemblée
générale.
53. La Cour ne considère pas davantage que l’Assemblée générale ait

entendu poser des limites à la liberté de la Cour de trancher elle-même ce
point. Elle relève que le point de l’ordre du jour sous lequel ce qui est
devenu la résolution 63/3 a été examiné ne mentionne pas l’identité des
auteurs de la déclaration et était simplement intitulé «Demande d’avis
consultatif de la Cour internationale de Justice sur la question de savoir
si la déclaration unilatérale d’indépendance du Kosovo est conforme au

droit international» (résolution 63/3 de l’Assemblée générale, du 8 octo-
bre 2008; les italiques sont de la Cour). La République de Serbie, seul
Etat ayant proposé la résolution 63/3, avait suggéré ce libellé, en deman-
dant que soit inscrit un point supplémentaire à l’ordre du jour de la
soixante-troisième session de l’Assemblée générale (lettre adressée au

Secrétaire général par le représentant permanent de la Serbie auprès de
l’Organisation des Nations Unies, Nations Unies, doc. A/63/195, 22 août
2008). Celui-ci est ensuite devenu le titre du projet de résolution, puis de

25title of the resolution itself is whether the declaration of independence is
in accordance with international law. Moreover, there was no discussion

of the identity of the authors of the declaration, or of the difference in
wording between the title of the resolution and the question which it
posed to the Court during the debate on the draft resolution (A/63/
PV.22).
54. As the Court has stated in a different context:

“It is not to be assumed that the General Assembly would . . . seek
to fetter or hamper the Court in the discharge of its judicial func-

tions; the Court must have full liberty to consider all relevant data
available to it in forming an opinion on a question posed to it for an
advisory opinion.” (Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Arti-
cle 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Rep-
orts 1962, p. 157.)

This consideration is applicable in the present case. In assessing whether
or not the declaration of independence is in accordance with interna-
tional law, the Court must be free to examine the entire record and decide

for itself whether that declaration was promulgated by the Provisional
Institutions of Self-Government or some other entity.
55. While many of those participating in the present proceedings made
reference to the opinion of the Supreme Court of Canada in Reference by
the Governor in Council concerning Certain Questions relating to the

Secession of Quebec from Canada ([1998] 2 Supreme Court Reporter
(SCR) 217; 161 Dominion Law Reports (DLR) (4th) 385; 115 Interna-
tional Law Reports (ILR) 536), the Court observes that the question in
the present case is markedly different from that posed to the Supreme
Court of Canada.

The relevant question in that case was:
“Does international law give the National Assembly, legislature or

government of Quebec the right to effect the secession of Quebec
from Canada unilaterally? In this regard, is there a right to self-
determination under international law that would give the National
Assembly, legislature or government of Quebec the right to effect the
secession of Quebec from Canada unilaterally?”

56. The question put to the Supreme Court of Canada inquired whether
there was a right to “effect secession”, and whether there was a rule of

international law which conferred a positive entitlement on any of the
organs named. By contrast, the General Assembly has asked whether the
declaration of independence was “in accordance with” international law.
The answer to that question turns on whether or not the applicable inter-
national law prohibited the declaration of independence. If the Court

concludes that it did, then it must answer the question put by saying that
the declaration of independence was not in accordance with international
law. It follows that the task which the Court is called upon to perform is

26la résolution 63/3. L’élément commun entre le point de l’ordre du jour et
le titre de la résolution est la conformité au droit international de la

déclaration d’indépendance. En outre, lors du débat consacré au projet
de résolution (A/63/PV.22), ni la question de l’identité des auteurs de la
déclaration, ni celle de la différence entre le libellé du titre de la résolu-
tion et celui de la question soumise à la Cour, n’ont été soulevées.
54. Comme la Cour l’a précisé dans un autre contexte:

«On ne doit pas supposer que l’Assemblée générale ait ... entendu
lier ou gêner la Cour dans l’exercice de ses fonctions judiciaires; la

Cour doit avoir la pleine liberté d’examiner tous les éléments perti-
nents dont elle dispose pour se faire une opinion sur une question
qui lui est posée en vue d’un avis consultatif.» (Certaines dépenses
des Nations Unies (article 17, paragraphe 2, de la Charte), avis

consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1962 , p. 157.)
Cette considération s’applique en l’espèce. Aux fins d’apprécier la confor-

mité au droit international de la déclaration d’indépendance, la Cour doit
être libre d’examiner le dossier dans son ensemble et de déterminer elle-
même si cette déclaration a été prononcée par les institutions provisoires
d’administration autonome ou par une autre entité.
55. Bien que de nombreux participants à la présente procédure aient

fait référence à l’avis donné par la Cour suprême du Canada dans
l’affaire du Renvoi par le Gouverneur en conseil au sujet de certaines ques-
tions ayant trait à la sécession du Québec du reste du Canada ([1998]
2 R.C.S. 217; 161 D.L.R. (4 ) 385; 115 International Law Reports
(I.L.R.) 536), la Cour fait observer que la question en la présente espèce

est nettement différente de celle qui avait été posée à la Cour suprême du
Canada.
Dans cette affaire, la question était la suivante:

«L’Assemblée nationale, la législature, ou le gouvernement du
Québec possède-t-il, en vertu du droit international, le droit de pro-
céder unilatéralement à la sécession du Québec du Canada? A cet
égard, en vertu du droit international, existe-t-il un droit à l’auto-

détermination qui procurerait à l’Assemblée nationale, la législature,
ou le gouvernement du Québec le droit de procéder unilatéralement
à la sécession du Québec du Canada?»

56. La Cour suprême du Canada était priée de dire s’il existait un droit
de «procéder à la sécession», et si une règle du droit international confé-
rait à l’un des organes mentionnés un droit positif à cet égard. En revan-
che, l’Assemblée générale a demandé si la déclaration d’indépendance

était «conforme au droit international». Il s’agit donc de savoir si le droit
international applicable interdisait ou non la déclaration d’indépendance.
Si la Cour conclut que tel était le cas, elle doit alors répondre à la ques-
tion posée en disant que la déclaration d’indépendance n’était pas

conforme au droit international. Partant, la tâche qui incombe à la Cour
consiste à déterminer si la déclaration d’indépendance a été adoptée en

26to determine whether or not the declaration of independence was adopted
in violation of international law. The Court is not required by the ques-

tion it has been asked to take a position on whether international law
conferred a positive entitlement on Kosovo unilaterally to declare its
independence or, a fortiori, on whether international law generally con-
fers an entitlement on entities situated within a State unilaterally to break
away from it. Indeed, it is entirely possible for a particular act — such as

a unilateral declaration of independence — not to be in violation of inter-
national law without necessarily constituting the exercise of a right con-
ferred by it. The Court has been asked for an opinion on the first point,
not the second.

III. FACTUAL BACKGROUND

57. The declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 must be con-
sidered within the factual context which led to its adoption. The Court
therefore will briefly describe the relevant characteristics of the frame-
work put in place by the Security Council to ensure the interim admin-

istration of Kosovo, namely, Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and
the regulations promulgated thereunder by the United Nations Mission
in Kosovo. The Court will then proceed with a brief description of the
developments relating to the so-called “final status process” in the years
preceding the adoption of the declaration of independence, before turn-

ing to the events of 17 February 2008.

A. Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999) and the Relevant
UNMIK Regulations

58. Resolution 1244 (1999) was adopted by the Security Council,

acting under Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter, on 10 June
1999. In this resolution, the Security Council, “determined to resolve the
grave humanitarian situation” which it had identified (see the fourth pre-
ambular paragraph) and to put an end to the armed conflict in
Kosovo, authorized the United Nations Secretary-General to establish an

international civil presence in Kosovo in order to provide “an interim
administration for Kosovo . . . which will provide transitional admini-
stration while establishing and overseeing the development of provisional
democratic self-governing institutions” (para. 10).
Paragraph 3 demanded

“in particular that the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia put an imme-
diate and verifiable end to violence and repression in Kosovo, and

begin and complete verifiable phased withdrawal from Kosovo of all
military, police and paramilitary forces according to a rapid timeta-
ble”.

Pursuant to paragraph 5 of the resolution, the Security Council decided

27violation ou non du droit international. La Cour n’est pas tenue, par la
question qui lui est posée, de prendre parti sur le point de savoir si le

droit international conférait au Kosovo un droit positif de déclarer
unilatéralement son indépendance, ni, a fortiori, sur le point de savoir
si le droit international confère en général à des entités situées à l’in-
térieur d’un Etat existant le droit de s’en séparer unilatéralement. Il se
pourrait parfaitement, en effet, qu’un acte — tel qu’une déclaration

unilatérale d’indépendance — ne soit pas en violation du droit inter-
national, sans constituer nécessairement l’exercice d’un droit conféré par
ce dernier. La Cour est invitée à se prononcer sur le premier point,
non sur le second.

III. C ONTEXTE FACTUEL

57. La déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 doit être appré-
ciée dans le contexte factuel qui a conduit à son adoption. Aussi la
Cour présentera-t-elle succinctement les caractéristiques pertinentes du
régime que le Conseil de sécurité a mis en place pour assurer l’admi-

nistration intérimaire du Kosovo, par la voie de sa résolution 1244
(1999) et des règlements promulgués en vertu de celle-ci par la Mission
des Nations Unies au Kosovo. La Cour se livrera ensuite à un bref
exposé des faits survenus dans le cadre du processus dit «de détermina-
tion du statut final» pendant les années qui ont précédé l’adoption de

la déclaration d’indépendance, avant d’examiner les événements du
17 février 2008.

A. La résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité
et les règlements pertinents de la MINUK

58. La résolution 1244 (1999) fut adoptée le 10 juin 1999 par le Conseil

de sécurité, agissant au titre du chapitre VII de la Charte des Nations
Unies. Dans cette résolution, le Conseil de sécurité, «[r]ésolu à remédier
à la situation humanitaire grave» qu’il avait constatée (voir le quatrième
alinéa du préambule) et à mettre un terme au conflit armé au Kosovo,
autorisait le Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies à éta-

blir une présence internationale civile au Kosovo afin d’y instaurer «une
administration intérimaire ... qui assurera[it] une administration transi-
toire de même que la mise en place et la supervision des institutions
d’auto-administration démocratiques provisoires» (par. 10).
Au paragraphe 3 de cette résolution, le Conseil de sécurité exigeait

«en particulier que la République fédérale de Yougoslavie mette
immédiatement et de manière vérifiable un terme à la violence et la

répression au Kosovo, entreprenne et achève le retrait vérifiable et
échelonné du Kosovo de toutes les forces militaires, paramilitaires et
de police suivant un calendrier serré».

Au paragraphe 5, il décidait du déploiement au Kosovo, sous l’égide de

27on the deployment in Kosovo, under the auspices of the United Nations,
of international civil and security presences and welcomed the agreement

of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to such presences. The powers and
responsibilities of the security presence were further clarified in para-
graphs 7 and 9. Paragraph 15 of resolution 1244 (1999) demanded that
the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) and other armed Kosovo Albanian
groups end immediately all offensive actions and comply with the require-

ments for demilitarization. Immediately preceding the adoption of Secu-
rity Council resolution 1244 (1999), various implementing steps had
already been taken through a series of measures, including, inter alia,
those stipulated in the Military Technical Agreement of 9 June 1999,
whose Article I.2 provided for the deployment of KFOR, permitting

these to
“operate without hindrance within Kosovo and with the authority to
take all necessary action to establish and maintain a secure environ-

ment for all citizens of Kosovo and otherwise carry out its mission”.

The Military Technical Agreement also provided for the withdrawal of
FRY ground and air forces, save for “an agreed number of Yugoslav and
Serb military and police personnel” as foreseen in paragraph 4 of resolu-
tion 1244 (1999).
59. Paragraph 11 of the resolution described the principal responsibili-

ties of the international civil presence in Kosovo as follows:

“(a) Promoting the establishment, pending a final settlement, of
substantial autonomy and self-government in Kosovo, taking
full account of annex 2 and of the Rambouillet accords (S/1999/
648);
(b) Performing basic civilian administrative functions where and

as long as required;
(c) Organizing and overseeing the development of provisional
institutions for democratic and autonomous self-government
pending a political settlement, including the holding of elec-
tions;
(d) Transferring, as these institutions are established, its adminis-

trative responsibilities while overseeing and supporting the
consolidation of Kosovo’s local provisional institutions and
other peace-building activities;

(e) Facilitating a political process designed to determine Kosovo’s

future status, taking into account the Rambouillet accords
(S/1999/648);

28l’Organisation des Nations Unies, de présences internationales civile et de
sécurité et accueillait avec satisfaction l’accord de la République fédérale

de Yougoslavie relatif à ces présences. Les pouvoirs et responsabilités de
la présence de sécurité étaient explicités aux paragraphes 7 et 9. Le para-
graphe 15 de la résolution 1244 (1999) exigeait que l’armée de libération
du Kosovo (ALK) et les autres groupes armés d’Albanais du Kosovo
mettent immédiatement fin à toutes opérations offensives et satisfassent

aux exigences en matière de démilitarisation. Juste avant l’adoption de la
résolution 1244 (1999), différentes mesures de mise en Œuvre avaient déjà
été prises, au nombre desquelles figuraient celles énoncées dans l’accord
militaro-technique du 9 juin 1999, dont le paragraphe 2 de l’article I pré-

voyait le déploiement de la KFOR, qui devait

«opére[r] sans entraves au Kosovo et sera[it] habilitée à prendre tou-
tes les dispositions voulues afin d’établir et de maintenir un environ-
nement sûr pour tous les citoyens du Kosovo et de s’acquitter de
tous les autres aspects de sa mission».

L’accord militaro-technique prévoyait également le retrait des forces ter-
restres et aériennes de la RFY, à l’exception d’«un nombre convenu de
militaires et de fonctionnaires de police yougoslaves et serbes», confor-

mément au paragraphe 4 de la résolution 1244 (1999).
59. Le paragraphe 11 de la résolution définissait les principales respon-
sabilités de la présence civile internationale au Kosovo de la manière sui-
vante:

«a) faciliter, en attendant un règlement définitif, l’instauration au
Kosovo d’une autonomie et d’une auto-administration subs-
tantielles, compte pleinement tenu de l’annexe 2 et des accords

de Rambouillet (S/1999/648);
b) exercer les fonctions d’administration civile de base là où cela
sera nécessaire et tant qu’il y aura lieu de le faire;
c) organiser et superviser la mise en place d’institutions provi-
soires pour une auto-administration autonome et démocra-

tique en attendant un règlement politique, notamment la tenue
d’élections;
d) transférer ses responsabilités administratives aux institutions
susvisées, à mesure qu’elles auront été mises en place, tout en
supervisant et en facilitant le renforcement des institutions

locales provisoires du Kosovo, de même que les autres activités
de consolidation de la paix;
e) faciliter un processus politique visant à déterminer le statut
futur du Kosovo, en tenant compte des accords de Ram-

bouillet (S/1999/648);

28 (f) In a final stage, overseeing the transfer of authority from Kos-
ovo’s provisional institutions to institutions established under

a political settlement . . . ”.
60. On 12 June 1999, the Secretary-General presented to the Security

Council “a preliminary operational concept for the overall organization
of the civil presence, which will be known as the United Nations Interim
Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK)”, pursuant to paragraph 10
of resolution 1244 (1999), according to which UNMIK would be headed
by a Special Representative of the Secretary-General, to be appointed by

the Secretary-General in consultation with the Security Council (Report
of the Secretary-General of 12 June 1999 (United Nations doc. S/1999/
672, 12 June 1999)). The Report of the Secretary-General provided that
there would be four Deputy Special Representatives working within
UNMIK, each responsible for one of four major components (the so-
called “four pillars”) of the UNMIK régime (para. 5): (a) interim civil

administration (with a lead role assigned to the United Nations);
(b) humanitarian affairs (with a lead role assigned to the Office of the
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)); (c) insti-
tution building (with a lead role assigned to the Organization for Security
and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)); and (d) reconstruction (with a

lead role assigned to the European Union).

61. On 25 July 1999, the first Special Representative of the Secretary-
General promulgated UNMIK regulation 1999/1, which provided in its
Section 1.1 that “[a]ll legislative and executive authority with respect to

Kosovo, including the administration of the judiciary, is vested in
UNMIK and is exercised by the Special Representative of the Secretary-
General”. Under Section 3 of UNMIK regulation 1999/1, the laws appli-
cable in the territory of Kosovo prior to 24 March 1999 were to continue
to apply, but only to the extent that these did not conflict with interna-

tionally recognized human rights standards and non-discrimination or
the fulfilment of the mandate given to UNMIK under resolu-
tion 1244 (1999). Section 3 was repealed by UNMIK regulation 1999/25
promulgated by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on
12 December 1999, with retroactive effect to 10 June 1999. Section 1.1 of
UNMIK regulation 1999/24 of 12 December 1999 provides that “[t]he

law applicable in Kosovo shall be: (a) the regulations promulgated by
the Special Representative of the Secretary-General and subsidiary instru-
ments issued thereunder; and (b) the law in force in Kosovo on 22 March
1989”. Section 4, entitled “Transitional Provision”, reads as follows:

“All legal acts, including judicial decisions, and the legal effects of
events which occurred, during the period from 10 June 1999 up to

the date of the present regulation, pursuant to the laws in force dur-
ing that period under section 3 of UNMIK Regulation No. 1999/1
of 25 July 1999, shall remain valid, insofar as they do not conflict

29 f) à un stade final, superviser le transfert des pouvoirs des insti-

tutions provisoires du Kosovo aux institutions qui auront été
établies dans le cadre d’un règlement politique...».

60. Le 12 juin 1999, le Secrétaire général présentait au Conseil de sécu-
rité, conformément au paragraphe 10 de la résolution 1244 (1999), «un
concept d’opération préliminaire pour l’organisation d’ensemble de la
présence civile, qui sera[it] connue sous le nom de Mission d’administra-

tion intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo (MINUK)», dans lequel il
était prévu que la MINUK serait dirigée par un représentant spécial du
Secrétaire général, désigné par celui-ci en consultation avec le Conseil de
sécurité (rapport du Secrétaire général en date du 12 juin 1999 (Nations

Unies, doc. S/1999/672, 12 juin 1999)). Le rapport du Secrétaire général
indiquait que quatre représentants spéciaux adjoints collaboreraient avec
la MINUK, chacun étant responsable de l’une des quatre grandes com-
posantes (dites les «quatre piliers») du régime de la MINUK (par. 5), à

savoir: a) l’administration civile intérimaire (le rôle principal étant attri-
bué à l’Organisation des Nations Unies); b) les affaires humanitaires (le
rôle principal étant attribué au Haut Commissariat des Nations Unies
pour les réfugiés (HCR)); c) la création d’institutions (le rôle principal

étant attribué à l’Organisation pour la sécurité et la coopération en
Europe (OSCE)); et d) la reconstruction (le rôle principal étant attribué
à l’Union européenne).
61. Le 25 juillet 1999, le premier représentant spécial du Secrétaire
o
général promulgua le règlement n 1999/1 de la MINUK, dont la sec-
tion 1.1 prévoyait que «[t]ous les pouvoirs législatifs et exécutifs afférents
au Kosovo, y compris l’administration de l’ordre judiciaire, s[eraie]nt

conférés à la MINUK et exercés par le représentont spécial du Secrétaire
général». Selon la section 3 du règlement n 1999/1 de la MINUK, les
lois applicables dans le territoire du Kosovo avant le 24 mars 1999 res-
teraient en vigueur, mais uniquement dans la mesure où elles n’entre-

raient pas en conflit avec les normes internationalement reconnues en
matière de droits de l’homme et de non-discrimination ni avec l’exécution
du mandat conféré à la MINUK en vertu de la résolution 1244 (1999). La
section 3 fut abrogée par le règlement n 1999/25 de la MINUK, promul-

gué par le représentant spécial du Secrétaire général le 12 décembro 1999,
avec effet rétroactif au 10 juin 1999. La section 1.1 du règlement n 1999/24
de la MINUK du 12 décembre 1999 prévoit que «[c]onstituent la loi
applicable au Kosovo: a) les règlements promulgués par le représentant

spécial du Secrétaire général et les textes subsidiaires publiés en vertu de
ceux-ci; et b) la législation en vigueur au Kosovo le 22 mars 1989». La
section 4, intitulée «Disposition transitoire», se lit comme suit:

«Tous les actes juridiques, y compris les décisions judiciaires, et
les effets juridiques des événements qui se sont produits durant la
période allant du 10 juin 1999 à la date du présent règlement, en

application des lois en vogueur durant cette période en vertu de la
section 3 du règlement n 1999/1 de la MINUK, en date du 25 juillet

29 with the standards referred to in section 1 of the present regulation
or any UNMIK regulation in force at the time of such acts.”

62. The powers and responsibilities thus laid out in Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) were set out in more detail in UNMIK regulation
2001/9 of 15 May 2001 on a Constitutional Framework for Provisional
Self-Government (hereinafter “Constitutional Framework”), which

defined the responsibilities relating to the administration of Kosovo
between the Special Representative of the Secretary-General and the Pro-
visional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo. With regard to the
role entrusted to the Special Representative of the Secretary-General
under Chapter 12 of the Constitutional Framework,

“[t]he exercise of the responsibilities of the Provisional Institutions

of Self-Government under this Constitutional Framework shall not
affect or diminish the authority of the SRSG to ensure full imple-
mentation of UNSCR 1244 (1999), including overseeing the Provi-
sional Institutions of Self-Government, its officials and its agencies,
and taking appropriate measures whenever their actions are incon-

sistent with UNSCR 1244 (1999) or this Constitutional Framework”.

Moreover, pursuant to Chapter 2 (a), “[t]he Provisional Institutions of
Self-Government and their officials shall . . . [e]xercise their authorities

consistent with the provisions of UNSCR 1244 (1999) and the terms set
forth in this Constitutional Framework”. Similarly, according to the
ninth preambular paragraph of the Constitutional Framework,

“the exercise of the responsibilities of the Provisional Institutions of
Self-Government in Kosovo shall not in any way affect or diminish
the ultimate authority of the SRSG for the implementation of

UNSCR 1244 (1999)”.

In his periodical report to the Security Council of 7 June 2001, the
Secretary-General stated that the Constitutional Framework contained

“broad authority for my Special Representative to intervene and
correct any actions of the provisional institutions of self-government

that are inconsistent with Security Council resolution 1244 (1999),
including the power to veto Assembly legislation, where necessary”
(Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations Interim

30 1999, demeurent valides dans la mesure où ils ne sont pas en conflit
avec les normes visées à la section 1 du présent règlement ou avec un

règlement de la MINUK en vigueur à la date où ils ont été accom-
plis.»

62. Les pouvoirs et responsabilités ainsi énoncés dans la résolu-
tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité furent exposés de façon plus
détaillée dans le règlement n 2001/9 de la MINUK en date du 15 mai 2001
relatif à un cadre constitutionnel pour une administration autonome pro-

visoire (dénommé ci-après le «cadre constitutionnel»), qui définissait les
responsabilités liées à l’administration du Kosovo incombant respective-
ment au représentant spécial du Secrétaire général et aux institutions pro-
visoires d’administration autonome du Kosovo. S’agissant du rôle dévolu

au représentant spécial du Secrétaire général en vertu du chapitre 12 du
cadre constitutionnel,

«[l]’exercice des responsabilités des institutions provisoires du gou-
vernement autonome en application du cadre constitutionnel
n’entame ni ne limite les pouvoirs du représentant spécial du Secré-
taire général de garantir l’application intégrale de la résolution 1244

(1999) du Conseil de sécurité de l’Organisation des Nations Unies,
notamment de superviser les institutions provisoires du gouverne-
ment autonome, ses responsables et ses représentations, et de pren-
dre les mesures appropriées dès qu’une décision prise par les institu-
tions provisoires est en contradiction avec la résolution 1244 (1999)

du Conseil de sécurité ou avec le cadre constitutionnel».

En outre, était-il indiqué au point a) du chapitre 2, «[l]es institutions pro-
visoires d’administration autonome et leurs fonctionnaires ... [e]xercent
leurs attributions conformément aux dispositions de la résolution 1244
(1999) du Conseil de sécurité et à celles énoncées dans le cadre constitu-
tionnel». De même, selon le neuvième alinéa du préambule du cadre

constitutionnel,

«l’exercice des responsabilités des institutions provisoires d’adminis-
tration autonome au Kosovo ne peut empêcher en aucun cas le
représentant spécial du Secrétaire général de statuer en dernier res-
sort sur la mise en Œuvre de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de
sécurité».

Dans son rapport périodique du 7 juin 2001 présenté au Conseil de sécu-

rité, le Secrétaire général déclarait que, aux termes du cadre constitu-
tionnel, son représentant spécial s’était vu conférer

«le mandat général ... d’intervenir pour remédier à toute mesure prise
par les institutions autonomes provisoires qui irai[t] à l’encontre de
la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité, y compris le pou-

voir d’opposer son veto aux textes de loi de l’Assemblée, si besoin
est» (rapport du Secrétaire général sur la Mission d’administration

30 Administration Mission in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/2001/
565, 7 June 2001).

63. Having described the framework put in place by the Security
Council to ensure the interim administration of the territory of Kosovo,

the Court now turns to the relevant events in the final status process
which preceded the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008.

B. The Relevant Events in the Final Status Process Prior to
17 February 2008

64. In June 2005, the Secretary-General appointed Kai Eide, Perma-

nent Representative of Norway to the North Atlantic Treaty Organiza-
tion, as his Special Envoy to carry out a comprehensive review of
Kosovo. In the wake of the Comprehensive Review report he submitted
to the Secretary-General (attached to United Nations doc. S/2005/635
(7 October 2005)), there was consensus within the Security Council that

the final status process should be commenced:

“The Security Council agrees with Ambassador Eide’s overall
assessment that, notwithstanding the challenges still facing Kosovo
and the wider region, the time has come to move to the next phase of
the political process. The Council therefore supports the Secretary-
General’s intention to start a political process to determine Kosovo’s
Future Status, as foreseen in Security Council resolu-

tion 1244 (1999).” (Statement by the President of the Security Coun-
cil of 24 October 2005, United Nations doc. S/PRST/2005/51.)

65. In November 2005, the Secretary-General appointed Mr. Martti
Ahtisaari, former President of Finland, as his Special Envoy for the
future status process for Kosovo. This appointment was endorsed by the
Security Council (see Letter dated 10 November 2005 from the President

of the Security Council addressed to the Secretary-General, United
Nations doc. S/2005/709). Mr. Ahtisaari’s Letter of Appointment
included, as an annex to it, a document entitled “Terms of Reference”
which stated that the Special Envoy “is expected to revert to the Secre-
tary-General at all stages of the process”. Furthermore, “[t]he pace and
duration of the future status process will be determined by the Special

Envoy on the basis of consultations with the Secretary-General, taking
into account the co-operation of the parties and the situation on the
ground” (Terms of Reference, dated 10 November 2005, as an appendix
to the Letter of the Secretary-General to Mr. Martti Ahtisaari of
14 November 2005, United Nations dossier No. 198).

66. The Security Council did not comment on these Terms of Refer-
ence. Instead, the members of the Council attached to their approval of

31 intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo, Nations Unies, doc. S/2001/
565, 7 juin 2001).

63. Ayant exposé le régime mis en place par le Conseil de sécurité afin
d’assurer l’administration intérimaire du territoire du Kosovo, la Cour en

vient à présent aux principaux événements survenus dans le cadre du pro-
cessus de détermination du statut final avant la déclaration d’indépen-
dance du 17 février 2008.

B. Les principaux événements survenus avant le 17 février 2008

dans le cadre du processus de détermination du statut final

64. En juin 2005, le Secrétaire général désigna M. Kai Eide, représen-
tant permanent de la Norvège auprès de l’Organisation du Traité de
l’Atlantique Nord, aux fonctions d’envoyé spécial chargé de procéder à
un examen global de la situation au Kosovo. Une fois que M. Eide eut

remis son rapport d’examen global au Secrétaire général (Nations Unies,
doc. S/2005/635, 7 octobre 2005, annexe), les membres du Conseil de
sécurité s’accordèrent sur la nécessité d’engager le processus de détermi-
nation du statut final:

«Le Conseil de sécurité approuve la conclusion générale de M. Eide
selon laquelle, en dépit des tâches qui restent à accomplir au Kosovo
et dans toute la région, le moment est venu de passer à la phase sui-
vante du processus politique. Le Conseil apporte donc son appui au

Secrétaire général, qui se propose d’entamer le processus politique
devant aboutir au statut futur du Kosovo, comme prévu dans la
résolution 1244 (1999).» (Déclaration du président du Conseil de
sécurité en date du 24 octobre 2005, Nations Unies, doc. S/PRST/

2005/51.)
65. En novembre 2005, le Secrétaire général nomma M. Martti Ahti-
saari, ancien président de la Finlande, aux fonctions d’envoyé spécial aux

fins du processus de détermination du statut futur du Kosovo. Cette
nomination fut entérinée par le Conseil de sécurité (voir la lettre en date
du 10 novembre 2005 adressée au Secrétaire général par le président du
Conseil de sécurité, Nations Unies, doc. S/2005/709). Etait annexé à la
lettre de nomination de M. Ahtisaari un document intitulé «Mandat»,

aux termes duquel l’envoyé spécial était «censé rendre compte au Secré-
taire général à toutes les étapes du processus». Par ailleurs, «[l]a cadence
et la durée du processus concernant le futur statut du Kosovo ser[aient]
déterminées par l’envoyé spécial à l’issue de consultations avec le Secré-
taire général, compte tenu de la coopération des parties et de la situation

sur le terrain» (mandat daté du 10 novembre 2005, annexé à la lettre en
date du 14 novembre 2005 adressée à M. Martti Ahtisaari par le Secré-
taire général, Nations Unies, dossier déposé par l’Organisation des
Nations Unies, pièce n 198).

66. Le Conseil de sécurité ne fit aucun commentaire sur ce mandat. Ses
membres se bornèrent à joindre à leur lettre d’approbation de la nomina-

31Mr. Ahtisaari’s appointment the Guiding Principles of the Contact Group
(an informal grouping of States formed in 1994 to address the situation

in the Balkans and composed of France, Germany, Italy, the Russian
Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States). Members of the
Security Council further indicated that the Guiding Principles were meant
for the Secretary-General’s (and therefore also for the Special Envoy’s)
“reference”. These Principles stated, inter alia, that

“[t]he Contact Group . . . welcomes the intention of the Secretary-
General to appoint a Special Envoy to lead this process . . .
A negotiated solution should be an international priority. Once
the process has started, it cannot be blocked and must be brought to
a conclusion. The Contact Group calls on the parties to engage in
good faith and constructively, to refrain from unilateral steps and to

reject any form of violence.

.............................
The Security Council will remain actively seized of the matter. The
final decision on the status of Kosovo should be endorsed by the
Security Council.” (Guiding Principles of the Contact Group for a

Settlement of the Status of Kosovo, as Annexed to the Letter Dated
10 November 2005 from the President of the Security Council
addressed to the Secretary-General, United Nations doc. S/2005/
709.)

67. Between 20 February and 8 September 2006, several rounds of
negotiations were held, at which delegations of Serbia and Kosovo

addressed, in particular, the decentralization of Kosovo’s governmental
and administrative functions, cultural heritage and religious sites, eco-
nomic issues, and community rights (Reports of the Secretary-General on
the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, United
Nations docs. S/2006/361, S/2006/707 and S/2006/906). According to the

Reports of the Secretary-General, “the parties remain[ed] far apart on
most issues” (Reports of the Secretary-General on the United Nations
Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, S/2006/707; S/2006/906).

68. On 2 February 2007, the Special Envoy of the Secretary-General

submitted a draft comprehensive proposal for the Kosovo status settle-
ment to the parties and invited them to engage in a consultative process
(recalled in the Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations
Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/2007/
134, 9 March 2007). On 10 March 2007, a final round of negotiations was

held in Vienna to discuss the settlement proposal. As reported by the Sec-
retary-General, “the parties were unable to make any additional progress”
at those negotiations (Report of the Secretary-General on the United

32tion de M. Ahtisaari le texte des principes directeurs du groupe de
contact (un groupement informel d’Etats constitué en 1994 aux fins

d’examiner la situation dans les Balkans et composé de l’Allemagne, des
Etats-Unis, de la Fédération de Russie, de la France, de l’Italie et du
Royaume-Uni). Les membres du Conseil de sécurité signalèrent en outre
que les principes directeurs étaient communiqués au Secrétaire général (et
donc aussi à l’envoyé spécial) «à titre de référence». Ces principes indi-

quaient, notamment, que

«[l]e groupe de contact ... se félicite de l’intention du Secrétaire géné-
ral de nommer un envoyé spécial pour conduire ce processus...
Un règlement négocié devrait être une priorité pour la commu-
nauté internationale. Une fois que le processus sera engagé, il ne

pourra plus être bloqué et devra être mené à son terme. Le groupe
de contact demande aux parties d’y participer de bonne foi et
de manière constructive, de s’abstenir de toute mesure unilatérale et
de rejeter toute forme de violence.

.............................
Le Conseil de sécurité demeurera activement saisi de la question et

devra approuver la décision finale sur le statut du Kosovo.» (Prin-
cipes directeurs établis par le groupe de contact en vue d’un règle-
ment du statut du Kosovo, tels qu’annexés à la lettre en date du
10 novembre 2005 adressée au Secrétaire général par le président du
Conseil de sécurité, Nations Unies, doc. S/2005/709.)

67. Entre le 20 février et le 8 septembre 2006 eurent lieu plusieurs tours
de négociations, au cours desquels les délégations de la Serbie et du
Kosovo abordèrent, en particulier, les questions de la décentralisation
des fonctions gouvernementales et administratives du Kosovo, du patri-
moine culturel et des sites religieux, ainsi que les questions économiques

et les droits des communautés (rapports du Secrétaire général sur la Mis-
sion d’administration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo, Nations
Unies, doc. S/2006/361, S/2006/707 et S/2006/906). Selon les rapports du
Secrétaire général, «[l]es parties demeuraient très éloignées sur la plupart
des questions» (rapports du Secrétaire général sur la Mission d’adminis-

tration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo, Nations Unies, doc. S/
2006/707 et S/2006/906).
68. Le 2 février 2007 (comme il est rappelé dans le rapport du Secré-
taire général sur la Mission d’administration intérimaire des Nations
Unies au Kosovo, Nations Unies, doc. S/2007/134, 9 mars 2007), l’envoyé

spécial du Secrétaire général soumit aux parties un projet de proposition
globale de règlement portant statut du Kosovo et les invita à engager un
processus consultatif. Un dernier tour de négociations, consacré à l’exa-
men de la proposition de règlement, eut lieu à Vienne le 10 mars 2007.

Ainsi qu’indiqué par le Secrétaire général, ces négociations restèrent
«sans résultat» (rapport du Secrétaire général sur la Mission d’adminis-

32Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/
2007/395, 29 June 2007, p. 1).

69. On 26 March 2007, the Secretary-General submitted the report of
his Special Envoy to the Security Council. The Special Envoy stated that
“after more than one year of direct talks, bilateral negotiations and
expert consultations, it [had] become clear to [him] that the parties [were]
not able to reach an agreement on Kosovo’s future status” (Letter dated

26 March 2007 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of
the Security Council attaching the Report of the Special Envoy of the
Secretary-General on Kosovo’s future status, United Nations doc. S/2007/
168, 26 March 2007). After emphasizing that his

“mandate explicitly provides that [he] determine the pace and dura-
tion of the future status process on the basis of consultations with
the Secretary-General, taking into account the co-operation of the
parties and the situation on the ground” (ibid., para. 3),

the Special Envoy concluded:

“It is my firm view that the negotiations’ potential to produce any
mutually agreeable outcome on Kosovo’s status is exhausted. No
amount of additional talks, whatever the format, will overcome this
impasse.

.............................
The time has come to resolve Kosovo’s status. Upon careful con-
sideration of Kosovo’s recent history, the realities of Kosovo today

and taking into account the negotiations with the parties, I have
come to the conclusion that the only viable option for Kosovo is
independence, to be supervised for an initial period by the interna-
tional community.” (Ibid., paras. 3 and 5.)

70. The Special Envoy’s conclusions were accompanied by his final-
ized Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement (United
Nations doc. S/2007/168/Add. 1, 26 March 2007), which, in his words, set
forth “international supervisory structures, [and] provide[d] the founda-

tions for a future independent Kosovo” (United Nations doc. S/2007/168,
para. 5). The Comprehensive Proposal called for the immediate conven-
ing of a Constitutional Commission to draft a Constitution for Kosovo
(ibid., Add. 1, 26 March 2007, Art. 10.1), established guidelines concern-
ing the membership of that Commission (ibid., Art. 10.2), set numerous
requirements concerning principles and provisions to be contained in that

Constitution (ibid., Art. 1.3 and Ann. I), and required that the Assembly
of Kosovo approve the Constitution by a two-thirds vote within 120 days
(ibid., Art. 10.4). Moreover, it called for the expiry of the UNMIK man-
date after a 120-day transition period, after which “all legislative and
executive authority vested in UNMIK shall be transferred en bloc to the

governing authorities of Kosovo, unless otherwise provided for in this
Settlement” (ibid., Art. 15.1). It mandated the holding of general and
municipal elections no later than nine months from the entry into force

33tration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo, Nations Unies, doc. S/
2007/395, 29 juin 2007, p. 1).

69. Le 26 mars 2007, le Secrétaire général soumit au Conseil de sécu-
rité le rapport de son envoyé spécial. Ce dernier y affirmait que, «après
plus d’un an de pourparlers directs, de négociations bilatérales et de
consultations d’experts, il [lui était] devenu évident que les parties
n[’étaient] pas en mesure de s’entendre sur le statut futur du Kosovo»

(lettre en date du 26 mars 2007 adressée au président du Conseil de sécu-
rité par le Secrétaire général, contenant le rapport de l’envoyé spécial du
Secrétaire général sur le statut futur du Kosovo, Nations Unies, doc.
S/2007/168, 26 mars 2007). Après avoir souligné que son

«mandat [l]e charge[ait] expressément de déterminer le rythme et la
durée du processus de détermination du statut futur du Kosovo en
concertation avec le Secrétaire général et en tenant compte de la coo-

pération des parties et de la situation sur le terrain» (ibid., par. 3),
l’envoyé spécial concluait:

«J’ai la ferme conviction que toutes les possibilités de parvenir à
une issue négociée du commun accord des parties ont été épuisées.
La poursuite des pourparlers, sous quelque forme que ce soit, ne

saurait permettre de sortir de cette impasse.
.............................

Le moment est venu de régler le statut du Kosovo. Ayant inter-
rogé attentivement l’histoire récente du Kosovo et ses réalités pré-
sentes et tenu des négociations avec les parties, je suis parvenu à la
conclusion que la seule option viable pour le Kosovo est l’indépen-
dance, en un premier temps sous la supervision de la communauté

internationale.» (Ibid., par. 3 et 5.)
70. Les conclusions de l’envoyé spécial étaient accompagnées du texte
définitif de sa proposition globale de règlement portant statut du Kosovo

(Nations Unies, doc. S/2007/168/Add. 1, 26 mars 2007), qui, selon ses pro-
pres termes, établissait «les structures de cette supervision internationale,
[et] jet[ait] les bases d’un futur Kosovo indépendant» (Nations Unies,
doc. S/2007/168, 26 mars 2007, par. 5). La proposition globale prévoyait
la création immédiate d’une commission constitutionnelle chargée de

rédiger une constitution pour le Kosovo (ibid., Add. 1, 26 mars 2007,
art. 10.1), établissait certains principes directeurs quant à la composition
de cette commission (ibid., art. 10.2), énonçait un grand nombre d’exi-
gences au sujet des principes et des dispositions devant figurer dans la
constitution (ibid., art. 1.3 et annexe I) et requérait de l’Assemblée du

Kosovo qu’elle approuve celle-ci par un vote à la majorité des deux tiers
dans un délai de cent vingt jours (ibid., art. 10.4). De plus, il était prévu
que le mandat de la MINUK viendrait à expiration après une période de
transition de cent vingt jours, à l’issue de laquelle «tous les pouvoirs

législatifs et exécutifs qui lui [avaie]nt été confiés ser[aie]nt transférés en
bloc aux autorités gouvernant le Kosovo, à moins que le présent règle-

33of the Constitution (UN doc. S/2007/168/Add. 1, 26 March 2007,
Art. 11.1). The Court further notes that the Comprehensive Proposal for

the Kosovo Status Settlement provided for the appointment of an Inter-
national Civilian Representative (ICR), who would have the final author-
ity in Kosovo regarding interpretation of the Settlement (ibid., Art. 12).
The Comprehensive Proposal also specified that the mandate of the ICR
would be reviewed “no later than two years after the entry into force of

[the] Settlement, with a view to gradually reducing the scope of the pow-
ers of the ICR and the frequency of intervention” (ibid., Ann. IX,
Art. 5.1) and that

“[t]he mandate of the ICR shall be terminated when the Interna-
tional Steering Group [a body composed of France, Germany, Italy,
the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, the United States, the

European Union, the European Commission and NATO] deter-
mine[d] that Kosovo ha[d] implemented the terms of [the] Settle-
ment” (ibid., Art. 5.2).

71. The Secretary-General “fully support[ed] both the recommen-
dation made by [his] Special Envoy in his report on Kosovo’s future
status and the Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement”
(letter dated 26 March 2007 from the Secretary-General addressed to the

President of the Security Council, United Nations doc. S/2007/168). The
Security Council, for its part, decided to undertake a mission to Kosovo
(see Report of the Security Council mission on the Kosovo issue, United
Nations doc. S/2007/256, 4 May 2007), but was not able to reach a deci-
sion regarding the final status of Kosovo. A draft resolution was circu-

lated among the Council’s members (see draft resolution sponsored by
Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom and the United
States, United Nations doc. S/2007/437 Prov., 17 July 2007) but was
withdrawn after some weeks when it had become clear that it would not
be adopted by the Security Council.

72. Between 9 August and 3 December 2007, further negotiations on
the future status of Kosovo were held under the auspices of a Troika
comprising representatives of the European Union, the Russian Federa-
tion and the United States. On 4 December 2007, the Troika submitted
its report to the Secretary-General, which came to the conclusion that,

despite intensive negotiations, “the parties were unable to reach an agree-
ment on Kosovo’s status” and “[n]either side was willing to yield on the
basic question of sovereignty” (Report of the European Union/United
States/Russian Federation Troika on Kosovo, 4 December 2007, annexed
to S/2007/723).

73. On 17 November 2007, elections were held for the Assembly of
Kosovo, 30 municipal assemblies and their respective mayors (Report of

34ment n’en dispose autrement» (Nations Unies, doc. S/2007/168/Add. 1,
26 mars 2007, art. 15.1). Des élections législatives et municipales devaient

être tenues au plus tard neuf mois après l’entrée en vigueur de la Cons-
titution (ibid., art. 11.1). La Cour note en outre que la proposition glo-
bale de règlement portant statut du Kosovo prévoyait la nomination d’un
représentant civil international qui ferait fonction au Kosovo d’autorité
de dernier ressort pour interpréter le règlement (ibid., art. 12). Il était

aussi précisé dans la proposition globale que le mandat du représentant
civil international serait revisé «deux ans au plus tard après l’entrée en
vigueur du ... règlement, afin de réduire progressivement l’étendue de[s]
pouvoirs et la fréquence de[s] interventions [dudit représentant]» (ibid.,

annexe IX, art. 5.1) et que
«[il] prend[rait] fin lorsque le groupe de pilotage international [un

organe composé de l’Allemagne, des Etats-Unis d’Amérique, de la
Fédération de Russie, de la France, de l’Italie, du Royaume-Uni, de
la Commission européenne, de l’OTAN et de l’Union européenne]
[aurait] estim[é] que le Kosovo a[vait] appliqué le ... règlement»
(ibid., art. 5.2).

71. Le Secrétaire général «souscri[vit] pleinement aux recommanda-
tions formulées par [s]on envoyé spécial dans son rapport sur le statut

futur du Kosovo et à la proposition globale de règlement portant statut
du Kosovo» (lettre en date du 26 mars 2007 adressée au président du
Conseil de sécurité par le Secrétaire général, Nations Unies, doc. S/2007/
168). Le Conseil de sécurité, pour sa part, décida de lancer une mission
sur le Kosovo (voir le rapport de la mission du Conseil de sécurité sur la

question du Kosovo, Nations Unies, doc. S/2007/256, 4 mai 2007), sans
toutefois parvenir à une décision quant au statut final du Kosovo. Un
projet de résolution fut distribué aux membres du Conseil de sécurité
(voir le projet de résolution proposé par l’Allemagne, la Belgique, les
Etats-Unis d’Amérique, la France, l’Italie et le Royaume-Uni, Nations

Unies, doc. S/2007/437 Prov., 17 juillet 2007), mais retiré quelques
semaines plus tard, lorsqu’il fut devenu évident qu’il ne serait pas
adopté.
72. Entre le 9 août et le 3 décembre 2007, les négociations sur le statut
futur du Kosovo reprirent sous les auspices d’une troïka composée des

représentants des Etats-Unis d’Amérique, de la Fédération de Russie et
de l’Union européenne. Le 4 décembre 2007, la troïka remit son rapport
au Secrétaire général, qui parvint à la conclusion que, malgré des négo-
ciations intenses, «[les parties] n’[avaie]nt pu parvenir à un accord sur le
statut du Kosovo» et que «[n]i l’une ni l’autre n’était disposée à céder sur

la question essentielle de la souveraineté» (rapport de la troïka pour le
Kosovo constituée des Etats-Unis d’Amérique, de la Fédération de Rus-
sie et de l’Union européenne, 4 décembre 2007, annexé au doc. S/2007/
723).

73. Le 17 novembre 2007 se déroulèrent des élections visant à désigner
les membres de l’Assemblée du Kosovo ainsi que ceux des trente assem-

34the Secretary-General on the United Nations Interim Administration
Mission in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/2007/768). The Assembly of

Kosovo held its inaugural session on 4 and 9 January 2008 (Report of the
Secretary-General on the United Nations Interim Administration Mis-
sion in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/2008/211).

C. The Events of 17 February 2008 and Thereafter

74. It is against this background that the declaration of independence

was adopted on 17 February 2008. The Court observes that the original
language of the declaration is Albanian. For the purposes of the present
Opinion, when quoting from the text of the declaration, the Court has
used the translations into English and French included in the dossier sub-
mitted on behalf of the Secretary-General.
In its relevant passages, the declaration of independence states that its

authors were “[c]onvened in an extraordinary meeting on 17 February
2008, in Pristina, the capital of Kosovo” (first preambular paragraph); it
“[r]ecall[ed] the years of internationally-sponsored negotiations between
Belgrade and Pristina over the question of [Kosovo’s] future political
status” and “[r]egrett[ed] that no mutually-acceptable status outcome

was possible” (tenth and eleventh preambular paragraphs). It further
declared that the authors were “[d]etermin[ed] to see [Kosovo’s] status
resolved in order to give [its] people clarity about their future, move
beyond the conflicts of the past and realise the full democratic potential
of [its] society” (thirteenth preambular paragraph).

75. In its operative part, the declaration of independence of 17 Febru-
ary 2008 states:

“1. We, the democratically-elected leaders of our people, hereby

declare Kosovo to be an independent and sovereign state. This dec-
laration reflects the will of our people and it is in full accordance
with the recommendations of UN Special Envoy Martti Ahtisaari
and his Comprehensive Proposal for the Kosovo Status Settlement.

2. We declare Kosovo to be a democratic, secular and multi-

ethnic republic, guided by the principles of non-discrimination
and equal protection under the law. We shall protect and promote
the rights of all communities in Kosovo and create the conditions
necessary for their effective participation in political and decision-
making processes.

.............................

5. We welcome the international community’s continued support

35blées municipales et leurs maires respectifs (rapport du Secrétaire général
sur la Mission d’administration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo,

Nations Unies, doc. S/2007/768). L’Assemblée du Kosovo tint sa session
inaugurale les 4 et 9 janvier 2008 (rapport du Secrétaire général sur la
Mission d’administration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo,
Nations Unies, doc. S/2008/211).

C. Les événements survenus le 17 février 2008 et par la suite

74. Tel est le contexte dans lequel la déclaration d’indépendance fut
adoptée le 17 février 2008. La Cour fait observer que la langue originale
de la déclaration est l’albanais. Aux fins du présent avis, lorsqu’elle cite le
texte de la déclaration, la Cour utilise les traductions française et anglaise
contenues dans le dossier déposé au nom du Secrétaire général.

Dans ses passages pertinents, la déclaration d’indépendance indique
que ses auteurs se sont «[r]éuni[s] en session extraordinaire le 17 février
2008, à Pristina, capitale du Kosovo» (premier alinéa du préambule);
«[r]appelant les années de négociations sous l’égide de la communauté

internationale entre Belgrade et Pristina sur la question [du] futur statut
politique [du Kosovo]», les auteurs «[d]éplor[e]nt qu’aucun accord
n’ait pu être trouvé concernant un statut acceptable pour les deux parties»
(dixième et onzième alinéas du préambule). Ils se déclarent en outre
«[r]ésolu[s] à trouver un règlement [au] statut [du Kosovo] afin de don-

ner [à son] peuple une vision claire de son avenir, de dépasser les conflits
du passé et de réaliser pleinement le potentiel démocratique de [sa]
société» (treizième alinéa du préambule).
75. Dans son dispositif, la déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février
2008 indique ce qui suit:

«1. Nous, dirigeants démocratiquement élus de notre peuple,
déclarons par la présente que le Kosovo est un Etat souverain et
indépendant. Cette déclaration reflète la volonté du peuple et est en
pleine conformité avec les recommandations de l’Envoyé spécial du

Secrétaire général de l’ONU, Martti Ahtisaari, et avec sa Proposi-
tion globale de Règlement portant statut du Kosovo.
2. Nous déclarons que le Kosovo est une république démocra-
tique, laïque et multiethnique, guidée par les principes de non-
discrimination et de protection égale devant la loi. Nous protége-

rons et promouvrons les droits de toutes les communautés du
Kosovo et créerons les conditions nécessaires à leur participation
effective aux processus politique et de prise de décisions.

.............................

5. Nous saluons le soutien continu à notre développement démo-

35 of our democratic development through international presences
established in Kosovo on the basis of UN Security Council resolu-

tion 1244 (1999). We invite and welcome an international civilian
presence to supervise our implementation of the Ahtisaari Plan, and
a European Union-led rule of law mission.

.............................

9. We hereby undertake the international obligations of Kosovo,
including those concluded on our behalf by the United Nations
Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo (UNMIK) . . .

.............................

12. We hereby affirm, clearly, specifically, and irrevocably, that
Kosovo shall be legally bound to comply with the provisions con-
tained in this Declaration, including, especially, the obligations for it
under the Ahtisaari Plan . . . We declare publicly that all States are

entitled to rely upon this declaration . . .”

76. The declaration of independence was adopted at a meeting held on
17 February 2008 by 109 out of the 120 members of the Assembly of

Kosovo, including the Prime Minister of Kosovo and by the President of
Kosovo (who was not a member of the Assembly). The ten members of
the Assembly representing the Kosovo Serb community and one member
representing the Kosovo Gorani community decided not to attend this
meeting. The declaration was written down on two sheets of papyrus and

read out, voted upon and then signed by all representatives present. It
was not transmitted to the Special Representative of the Secretary-
General and was not published in the Official Gazette of the Provi-
sional Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo.

77. After the declaration of independence was issued, the Republic of
Serbia informed the Secretary-General that it had adopted a decision
stating that that declaration represented a forceful and unilateral seces-
sion of a part of the territory of Serbia, and did not produce legal effects
either in Serbia or in the international legal order (United Nations doc.
S/PV.5839; Report of the Secretary-General on the United Nations

Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, United Nations doc. S/2008/
211). Further to a request from Serbia, an emergency public meeting of
the Security Council took place on 18 February 2008, in which Mr. Boris
Tadic´, the President of the Republic of Serbia, participated and
denounced the declaration of independence as an unlawful act which had

been declared null and void by the National Assembly of Serbia (United
Nations doc. S/PV.5839).

36 cratique manifesté par la communauté internationale par le biais des
présences internationales établies au Kosovo sur la base de la résolu-

tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité de l’ONU. Nous invitons et
accueillons une présence internationale civile chargée de superviser
l’application (par le Kosovo) du plan Ahtisaari et une mission de
l’Union européenne d’«état de droit».

.............................

9. Nous assumons par la présente les obligations internationales
du Kosovo, dont celles conclues pour notre compte par la Mis-
sion d’administration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo

(MINUK).
.............................

12. Nous affirmons par la présente, clairement, explicitement et
de manière irrévocable, que le Kosovo sera tenu légalement de res-

pecter les dispositions contenues dans cette déclaration, dont plus
particulièrement les obligations qui lui incombent aux termes du
plan Ahtisaari... Nous déclarons publiquement que tous les Etats
sont en droit de se prévaloir de cette déclaration…»

76. La déclaration d’indépendance fut adoptée à une réunion tenue le
17 février 2008 par 109 des 120 membres de l’Assemblée du Kosovo, y
compris le premier ministre du Kosovo, ainsi que par le président du
Kosovo (qui n’était pas membre de l’Assemblée). Les dix membres de
l’Assemblée qui représentaient la communauté serbe du Kosovo et un

membre représentant la communauté gorani du Kosovo décidèrent de
ne pas assister à cette réunion. La déclaration était couchée par écrit sur
deux feuilles de papyrus; il en fut donné lecture puis elle fut mise aux
voix et signée par tous les représentants présents. Elle ne fut pas trans-
mise au représentant spécial du Secrétaire général, ni publiée au Journal

officiel des institutions provisoires d’administration autonome du
Kosovo.
77. Une fois proclamée l’indépendance du Kosovo, la République de
Serbie informa le Secrétaire général qu’elle avait adopté une décision
indiquant que cette déclaration constituait une sécession imposée et uni-

latérale d’une partie du territoire serbe et qu’elle n’avait aucun effet juri-
dique, que ce soit vis-à-vis de la République de Serbie ou au regard du
droit international (Nations Unies, doc. S/PV.5839; rapport du Secré-
taire général sur la Mission d’administration intérimaire des Nations
Unies au Kosovo, Nations Unies, doc. S/2008/211). A la demande de la

Serbie, le Conseil de sécurité tint le 18 février 2008 une séance publi-
que d’urgence à laquelle participait le président de la République de
Serbie, M. Boris Tadic ´, qui, à cette occasion, dénonça la déclaration
d’indépendance comme constituant un acte illicite ayant été jugé

nul et non avenu par l’assemblée nationale de Serbie (Nations Unies,
doc. S/PV.5839).

36 IV. THE Q UESTION WHETHER THE D ECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE

ISIN A CCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL L AW

78. The Court now turns to the substance of the request submitted
by the General Assembly. The Court recalls that it has been asked by
the General Assembly to assess the accordance of the declaration of

independence of 17 February 2008 with “international law” (resolution
63/3 of the General Assembly, 8 October 2008). The Court will first turn
its attention to certain questions concerning the lawfulness of decla-
rations of independence under general international law, against the back-

ground of which the question posed falls to be considered, and Security
Council resolution 1244 (1999) is to be understood and applied. Once this
general framework has been determined, the Court will turn to the
legal relevance of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999), and determine

whether the resolution creates special rules, and ensuing obligations, under
international law applicable to the issues raised by the present request and
having a bearing on the lawfulness of the declaration of independence of
17 February 2008.

A. General International Law

79. During the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries,

there were numerous instances of declarations of independence, often
strenuously opposed by the State from which independence was being
declared. Sometimes a declaration resulted in the creation of a new State,
at others it did not. In no case, however, does the practice of States as a
whole suggest that the act of promulgating the declaration was regarded

as contrary to international law. On the contrary, State practice during
this period points clearly to the conclusion that international law con-
tained no prohibition of declarations of independence. During the second
half of the twentieth century, the international law of self-determination

developed in such a way as to create a right to independence for
the peoples of non-self-governing territories and peoples subject to alien
subjugation, domination and exploitation (cf. Legal Consequences for
States of the Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South

West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970),
Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 , pp. 31-32, paras. 52-53; East
Timor (Portugal v. Australia), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995 , p. 102,
para. 29; Legal Consequences of the Construction of a Wall in the Occu-

pied Palestinian Territory, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 2004 (I) ,
pp. 171-172, para. 88). A great many new States have come into existence as
a result of the exercise of this right. There were, however, also instances of
declarations of independence outside this context. The practice of States
in these latter cases does not point to the emergence in international law

of a new rule prohibiting the making of a declaration of independence in
such cases.

37 IV. Q UESTION DE LA CONFORMITÉ DE LA DÉCLARATION D ’INDÉPENDANCE

AU DROIT INTERNATIONAL

78. La Cour en vient maintenant au fond de la demande présentée par
l’Assemblée générale. Elle rappelle que celle-ci l’a priée de se prononcer

sur la conformité de la déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 au
«droit international» (résolution 63/3 de l’Assemblée générale, 8 octobre
2008). La Cour se penchera tout d’abord sur certaines questions relatives
à la licéité des déclarations d’indépendance en droit international général,

au regard duquel la question posée doit être examinée et la résolu-
tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité, interprétée et appliquée. Après
avoir défini ce cadre général, la Cour examinera la pertinence juridique
de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité, et déterminera si

celle-ci crée, en droit international, des règles spéciales — et, partant, des
obligations — applicables aux questions que soulève la présente demande
et ayant une incidence sur la licéité de la déclaration d’indépendance du
17 février 2008.

A. Le droit international général

e
79. Les décearations d’indépendance onteété nombreuses au XVIII siè-
cle, au XIX siècle et au début du XX siècle, suscitant souvent une vive
opposition de la part des Etats à l’égard desquels elles étaient faites. Cer-
taines d’entre elles ont conduit à la création de nouveaux Etats, d’autres

non. Dans son ensemble, toutefois, la pratique des Etats ne semble pas
indiquer que la déclaration de l’indépendance ait jamais été considérée
comme une transgression du droit international. Au contraire, il ressort
clairement de la pratique étatique au cours de cette période que le droit

international n’interdisait nullement lee déclarations d’indépendance. Au
cours de la seconde moitié du XX siècle, le droit international, en
matière d’autodétermination, a évolué pour donner naissance à un droit
à l’indépendance au bénéfice des peuples des territoires non autonomes et

de ceux qui étaient soumis à la subjugation, à la domination ou à l’exploi-
tation étrangères (cf. Conséquences juridiques pour les Etats de la pré-
sence continue de l’Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain)
nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité, avis consul-

tatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1971 , p. 31-32, par. 52-53; Timor oriental (Portugal
c. Australie), arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1995 , p. 102, par. 29; Conséquences
juridiques de l’édification d’un mur dans le territoire palestinien occupé,
avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 2004 (I) , p. 171-172, par. 88). Un très

grand nombre de nouveaux Etats sont nés par suite de l’exercice de ce
droit. Il est toutefois également arrivé que des déclarations d’indépen-
dance soient faites en dehors de ce contexte. La pratique des Etats
dans ces derniers cas ne révèle pas l’apparition, en droit internatio-

nal, d’une nouvelle règle interdisant que de telles déclarations soient
faites.

37 80. Several participants in the proceedings before the Court have con-
tended that a prohibition of unilateral declarations of independence is

implicit in the principle of territorial integrity.
The Court recalls that the principle of territorial integrity is an impor-
tant part of the international legal order and is enshrined in the Charter
of the United Nations, in particular in Article 2, paragraph 4, which pro-
vides that:

“All Members shall refrain in their international relations from
the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political

independence of any State, or in any other manner inconsistent with
the Purposes of the United Nations.”

In General Assembly resolution 2625 (XXV), entitled “Declaration on
Principles of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and
Co-operation among States in Accordance with the Charter of the
United Nations”, which reflects customary international lawM ( ilitary and
Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (Nicaraguva. United States

of America), Merits, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1986 , pp. 101-103,
paras. 191-193), the General Assembly reiterated “[t]he principle that
States shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use
of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any
State”. This resolution then enumerated various obligations incumbent

upon States to refrain from violating the territorial integrity of other sov-
ereign States. In the same vein, the Final Act of the Helsinki Conference
on Security and Co-operation in Europe of 1 August 1975 (the Helsinki
Conference) stipulated that “[t]he participating States will respect the ter-
ritorial integrity of each of the participating States” (Art. IV). Thus, the

scope of the principle of territorial integrity is confined to the sphere of
relations between States.

81. Several participants have invoked resolutions of the Security
Council condemning particular declarations of independence: see, inter

alia, Security Council resolutions 216 (1965) and 217 (1965), concerning
Southern Rhodesia; Security Council resolution 541 (1983), concerning
northern Cyprus; and Security Council resolution 787 (1992), concerning
the Republika Srpska.
The Court notes, however, that in all of those instances the Security
Council was making a determination as regards the concrete situation

existing at the time that those declarations of independence were made;
the illegality attached to the declarations of independence thus stemmed
not from the unilateral character of these declarations as such, but from
the fact that they were, or would have been, connected with the unlawful
use of force or other egregious violations of norms of general interna-

tional law, in particular those of a peremptory character (jus cogens).
In the context of Kosovo, the Security Council has never taken this
position. The exceptional character of the resolutions enumerated above

38 80. Plusieurs participants à la procédure devant la Cour ont soutenu
qu’une interdiction des déclarations unilatérales d’indépendance était

implicitement contenue dans le principe de l’intégrité territoriale.
La Cour rappelle que le principe de l’intégrité territoriale constitue un
élément important de l’ordre juridique international et qu’il est consacré
par la Charte des Nations Unies, en particulier au paragraphe 4 de l’ar-
ticle 2, ainsi libellé:

«Les Membres de l’Organisation s’abstiennent, dans leurs rela-
tions internationales, de recourir à la menace ou à l’emploi de la

force, soit contre l’intégrité territoriale ou l’indépendance politique
de tout Etat, soit de toute autre manière incompatible avec les buts
des Nations Unies.»

Dans sa résolution 2625 (XXV), intitulée «Déclaration relative aux
principes du droit international touchant les relations amicales et la co-
opération entre les Etats conformément à la Charte des Nations Unies»,

qui reflète le droit international coutumier (Activités militaires et
paramilitaires au Nicaragua et contre celui-ci (Nicaragua c. Etats-Unis
d’Amérique), fond, arrêt, C.I.J. Recueil 1986 , p. 101-103, par. 191-193),
l’Assemblée générale a réaffirmé «[l]e principe que les Etats s’abstien-
nent, dans leurs relations internationales, de recourir à la menace ou à

l’emploi de la force ... contre l’intégrité territoriale ou l’indépendance
politique de tout Etat». Cette résolution met ensuite à la charge des
Etats différentes obligations leur imposant de ne pas violer l’inté-
grité territoriale d’autres Etats souverains. Dans le même ordre d’idées,
l’acte final de la conférence d’Helsinki sur la sécurité et la coopération
er
en Europe du 1 août 1975 (la conférence d’Helsinki) prévoit que
«[l]es Etats participants respecte[ront] l’intégrité territoriale de cha-
cun des autres Etats participants» (article IV). La portée du principe
de l’intégrité territoriale est donc limitée à la sphère des relations
interétatiques.

81. Plusieurs participants ont invoqué des résolutions par lesquelles le
Conseil de sécurité a condamné certaines déclarations d’indépendance:
voir, notamment, les résolutions 216 (1965) et 217 (1965) du Conseil de
sécurité concernant la Rhodésie du Sud, la résolution 541 (1983) du
Conseil de sécurité concernant le nord de Chypre et la résolution 787

(1992) du Conseil de sécurité concernant la Republika Srpska.
La Cour relève cependant que, dans chacun de ces cas, le Conseil de
sécurité s’est prononcé sur la situation telle qu’elle se présentait concrè-
tement lorsque les déclarations d’indépendance ont été faites; l’illicéité de
ces déclarations découlait donc non de leur caractère unilatéral, mais du

fait que celles-ci allaient ou seraient allées de pair avec un recours illicite
à la force ou avec d’autres violations graves de normes de droit interna-
tional général, en particulier de nature impérative (jus cogens). Or, dans
le cas du Kosovo, le Conseil de sécurité n’a jamais pris une telle position.

Selon la Cour, le caractère exceptionnel des résolutions susmentionnées
semble confirmer qu’aucune interdiction générale des déclarations uni-

38appears to the Court to confirm that no general prohibition against uni-
lateral declarations of independence may be inferred from the practice of the

Security Council.

*

82. A number of participants in the present proceedings have claimed,

although in almost every instance only as a secondary argument, that the
population of Kosovo has the right to create an independent State either
as a manifestation of a right to self-determination or pursuant to what
they described as a right of “remedial secession” in the face of the situa-
tion in Kosovo.

The Court has already noted (see paragraph 79 above) that one of the
major developments of international law during the second half of the
twentieth century has been the evolution of the right of self-determina-
tion. Whether, outside the context of non-self-governing territories and
peoples subject to alien subjugation, domination and exploitation, the
international law of self-determination confers upon part of the popula-

tion of an existing State a right to separate from that State is, however, a
subject on which radically different views were expressed by those taking
part in the proceedings and expressing a position on the question. Similar
differences existed regarding whether international law provides for a
right of “remedial secession” and, if so, in what circumstances. There was

also a sharp difference of views as to whether the circumstances which
some participants maintained would give rise to a right of “remedial
secession” were actually present in Kosovo.

83. The Court considers that it is not necessary to resolve these ques-
tions in the present case. The General Assembly has requested the Court’s
opinion only on whether or not the declaration of independence is in
accordance with international law. Debates regarding the extent of the
right of self-determination and the existence of any right of “remedial

secession”, however, concern the right to separate from a State. As the
Court has already noted (see paragraphs 49 to 56 above), and as almost
all participants agreed, that issue is beyond the scope of the question
posed by the General Assembly. To answer that question, the Court need
only determine whether the declaration of independence violated either
general international law or the lex specialis created by Security Council

resolution 1244 (1999).

*

84. For the reasons already given, the Court considers that general

international law contains no applicable prohibition of declarations
of independence. Accordingly, it concludes that the declaration of
independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general international

39latérales d’indépendance ne saurait être déduite de la pratique du Conseil
de sécurité.

*
82. Un certain nombre de participants à la présente procédure ont fait

valoir — seulement, il est vrai, à titre d’argument secondaire dans pres-
que tous les cas — que la population du Kosovo avait le droit de créer un
Etat indépendant, soit au nom d’un droit à l’autodétermination, soit en
vertu de ce qu’ils ont présenté comme un droit de «sécession-remède»

appliqué à la situation au Kosovo.
La Cour a déjà relevé (voir paragraphe 79 ci-dessus) que l’évolution du
droit des peuples à disposer d’eux-mêmes était l’un des principaux déve-
loppements du droit international au cours de la seconde moitié du
XX siècle. La question de savoir si, en dehors du contexte des territoires

non autonomes ou de celui des peuples soumis à la subjugation, à la
domination ou à l’exploitation étrangères, le droit international relatif à
l’autodétermination autorise une partie de la population d’un Etat exis-
tant à se séparer de cet Etat a cependant suscité des réponses radicale-
ment différentes parmi les participants à la présente procédure qui se

sont prononcés à ce sujet. Des divergences similaires se sont fait jour
sur les questions de savoir si le droit international prévoit un droit de
«sécession-remède» et, dans l’affirmative, dans quelles circonstances
celui-ci s’appliquerait. Des vues très différentes ont également été expri-
mées sur le point de savoir si les circonstances présentées par certains

participants comme donnant naissance à un droit de «sécession-remède»
étaient effectivement réunies dans le cas du Kosovo.
83. La Cour ne juge pas nécessaire de trancher ces questions en
l’espèce. L’Assemblée générale n’a demandé l’avis de la Cour que sur le
point de savoir si la déclaration d’indépendance du Kosovo était conforme

au droit international. Or, les controverses relatives à la portée du droit à
l’autodétermination ou à l’existence d’un droit de «sécession-remède» se
rapportent en réalité à la question du droit de se séparer d’un Etat. Ainsi
que Cour l’a déjà indiqué (voir paragraphes 49 à 56 ci-dessus), cette ques-
tion sort du cadre de celle qui a été posée par l’Assemblée générale, et

presque tous les participants en conviennent. Pour répondre à cette der-
nière, il suffit à la Cour de déterminer si la déclaration d’indépendance a
violé le droit international général ou la lex specialis créée par la résolu-
tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité.

*

84. Pour les raisons déjà indiquées, la Cour estime que le droit inter-
national général ne comporte aucune interdiction applicable des déclara-

tions d’indépendance. En conséquence, elle conclut que la déclaration
d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 n’a pas violé le droit international

39law. Having arrived at that conclusion, the Court now turns to the legal
relevance of Security Council resolution 1244, adopted on 10 June 1999.

B. Security Council Resolution 1244 (1999) and the UNMIK
Constitutional Framework Created Thereunder

85. Within the legal framework of the United Nations Charter, nota-
bly on the basis of Articles 24, 25 and Chapter VII thereof, the Security
Council may adopt resolutions imposing obligations under international
law. The Court has had the occasion to interpret and apply such Security
Council resolutions on a number of occasions and has consistently treated

them as part of the framework of obligations under international law
(Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council
Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 ,p .6;
Questions of Interpretation and Application of the 1971 Montreal Con-
vention arising from the Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab

Jamahiriya v. United Kingdom), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April
1992, I.C.J. Reports 1992 , p. 15, paras. 39-41; Questions of Interpreta-
tion and Application of the 1971 Montreal Convention arising from the
Aerial Incident at Lockerbie (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya v. United States
of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 14 April 1992, I.C.J. Reports

1992, pp. 126-127, paras. 42-44). Resolution 1244 (1999) was expressly
adopted by the Security Council on the basis of Chapter VII of the
United Nations Charter, and therefore clearly imposes international legal
obligations. The Court notes that none of the participants has questioned
the fact that resolution 1244 (1999), which specifically deals with the situ-

ation in Kosovo, is part of the law relevant in the present situation.

86. The Court notes that there are a number of other Security Council
resolutions adopted on the question of Kosovo, notably Security Council
resolutions 1160 (1998), 1199 (1998), 1203 (1998) and 1239 (1999); how-

ever, the Court sees no need to pronounce specifically on resolutions of
the Security Council adopted prior to resolution 1244 (1999), which are,
in any case, recalled in the second preambular paragraph of the latter.

*

87. A certain number of participants have dealt with the question
whether regulations adopted on behalf of UNMIK by the Special Rep-
resentative of the Secretary-General, notably the Constitutional Frame-
work (see paragraph 62 above), also form part of the applicable interna-

tional law within the meaning of the General Assembly’s request.
88. In particular, it has been argued before the Court that the Consti-
tutional Framework is an act of an internal law rather than an interna-

40général. Etant parvenue à cette conclusion, la Cour en vient maintenant
à l’examen de la pertinence juridique de la résolution 1244 du Conseil de

sécurité, adoptée le 10 juin 1999.

B. La résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité et le cadre

constitutionnel de la MINUK établi en vertu de cette résolution

85. Dans le cadre juridique de la Charte des Nations Unies, et notam-
ment sur la base de ses articles 24 et 25 et de son chapitre VII, le Conseil
de sécurité peut adopter des résolutions imposant des obligations en
vertu du droit international. La Cour a, à plusieurs reprises, eu l’occasion

d’interpréter et d’appliquer de telles résolutions du Conseil de sécurité, et
a toujours considéré qu’elles s’inscrivaient dans le cadre général des obli-
gations du droit international (Conséquences juridiques pour les Etats de
la présence continue de l’Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain)
nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité, avis consul-

tatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1971 ,p.16;Questions d’interprétation et d’applica-
tion de la convention de Montréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de
Lockerbie (Jamahiriya arabe libyenne c. Royaume-Uni), mesures conser-
vatoires, ordonnance du 14 avril 1992, C.I.J. Recueil 1992 , p. 15, par. 39-
41; Questions d’interprétation et d’application de la convention de Mon-

tréal de 1971 résultant de l’incident aérien de Lockerbie (Jamahiriya
arabe libyenne c. Etats-Unis d’Amérique), mesures conservatoires, ordon-
nance du 14 avril 1992, C.I.J. Recueil 1992 , p. 126-127, par. 42-44). La
résolution 1244 (1999) a été expressément adoptée par le Conseil de sécu-
rité au titre du chapitre VII de la Charte des Nations Unies, et elle impose

donc clairement des obligations juridiques internationales. La Cour relève
qu’aucun des participants n’a contesté que la résolution 1244 (1999), qui
concerne spécifiquement la situation au Kosovo, fasse partie du droit
pertinent au regard de la présente situation.
86. La Cour relève que le Conseil de sécurité a adopté plusieurs autres

résolutions relatives à la question du Kosovo, notamment les résolu-
tions 1160 (1998), 1199 (1998), 1203 (1998) et 1239 (1999). Elle n’estime
cependant pas nécessaire de se prononcer spécifiquement sur les réso-
lutions du Conseil de sécurité adoptées avant la résolution 1244 (1999),
qui, en tout état de cause, sont rappelées au deuxième alinéa de son

préambule.

*
87. Un certain nombre de participants se sont intéressés à la question

de savoir si les règlements adoptés au nom de la MINUK par le repré-
sentant spécial du Secrétaire général, notamment le cadre constitutionnel
(voir paragraphe 62 ci-dessus), faisaient également partie du droit inter-
national applicable au sens de la demande de l’Assemblée générale.

88. Il a notamment été soutenu devant la Cour que le cadre constitu-
tionnel était un acte de droit interne et non de droit international. Selon

40tional law character. According to that argument, the Constitutional
Framework would not be part of the international law applicable in the

present instance and the question of the compatibility of the declaration
of independence therewith would thus fall outside the scope of the Gen-
eral Assembly’s request.
The Court observes that UNMIK regulations, including regula-
tion 2001/9, which promulgated the Constitutional Framework, are

adopted by the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the
basis of the authority derived from Security Council resolution 1244
(1999), notably its paragraphs 6, 10, and 11, and thus ultimately from the
United Nations Charter. The Constitutional Framework derives its bind-
ing force from the binding character of resolution 1244 (1999) and thus

from international law. In that sense it therefore possesses an interna-
tional legal character.
89. At the same time, the Court observes that the Constitutional
Framework functions as part of a specific legal order, created pursuant to
resolution 1244 (1999), which is applicable only in Kosovo and the pur-
pose of which is to regulate, during the interim phase established by reso-

lution 1244 (1999), matters which would ordinarily be the subject of
internal, rather than international, law. Regulation 2001/9 opens with the
statement that the Constitutional Framework was promulgated

“[f]or the purposes of developing meaningful self-government in
Kosovo pending a final settlement, and establishing provisional
institutions of self-government in the legislative, executive and judi-
cial fields through the participation of the people of Kosovo in free

and fair elections”.
The Constitutional Framework therefore took effect as part of the

body of law adopted for the administration of Kosovo during the interim
phase. The institutions which it created were empowered by the Consti-
tutional Framework to take decisions which took effect within that body
of law. In particular, the Assembly of Kosovo was empowered to adopt
legislation which would have the force of law within that legal order, sub-

ject always to the overriding authority of the Special Representative of
the Secretary-General.
90. The Court notes that both Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)
and the Constitutional Framework entrust the Special Representative of
the Secretary-General with considerable supervisory powers with regard
to the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government established under the

authority of the United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kos-
ovo. As noted above (see paragraph 58), Security Council resolution 1244
(1999) envisages “an interim administration for Kosovo . . . which will
provide transitional administration while establishing and overseeing the
development of provisional democratic self-governing institutions”

(para. 10). Resolution 1244 (1999) further states that “the main respon-
sibilities of the international civil presence will include . . . [o]rganizing
and overseeing the development of provisional institutions for demo-

41cette argumentation, le cadre constitutionnel ne ferait pas partie du droit
international applicable en la présente espèce et la question de la compa-

tibilité de la déclaration d’indépendance avec celui-ci n’entrerait dès lors
pas dans le cadre de la demande de l’Assemblée générale.

La Cour fait observer que les règlements de la MINUK, y compris le
o
règlement n 2001/9 par lequel a été promulgué le cadre constitutionnel,
sont adoptés par le représentant spécial du Secrétaire général en vertu des
pouvoirs qui lui sont dévolus par la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de
sécurité — notamment de ses paragraphes 6, 10 et 11 — et donc, en der-
nière analyse, par la Charte des Nations Unies. Le cadre constitutionnel

tient sa force obligatoire du caractère contraignant de la résolution 1244
(1999) et, partant, du droit international. En ce sens, il revêt donc un
caractère juridique international.
89. La Cour observe que ce cadre constitutionnel constitue en même

temps l’un des rouages de l’ordre juridique spécifique, créé en vertu de la
résolution 1244 (1999), applicable seulement au Kosovo et destiné à
réglementer, pendant la période intérimaire instituée par cette résolution,
des questions qui relèvent habituellement du droit interne plutôt que du
droit international. Le règlement n 2001/9 commence par indiquer que le

cadre constitutionnel a été promulgué

«[a]fin de mettre en place un gouvernement autonome efficace, en
attendant un règlement définitif, et de créer des institutions provisoi-
res d’administration autonome dans les domaines législatif, exécutif
et judiciaire grâce à la participation de la population du Kosovo à
des élections libres et régulières».

Le cadre constitutionnel s’est donc intégré dans l’ensemble de normes
adopté aux fins de l’administration du Kosovo pendant la période inté-

rimaire. Les institutions créées en vertu du cadre constitutionnel étaient
habilitées par celui-ci à prendre des décisions produisant leurs effets au
sein de cet ensemble de normes. En particulier, l’Assemblée du Kosovo
était habilitée à adopter des textes ayant force de loi dans cet ordre juri-

dique, sous réserve de l’autorité prépondérante du représentant spécial du
Secrétaire général.
90. La Cour relève que, en vertu tant de la résolution 1244 (1999) du
Conseil de sécurité que du cadre constitutionnel, le représentant spécial
du Secrétaire général jouit de pouvoirs de supervision considérables à

l’égard des institutions provisoires d’administration autonome établies
sous l’autorité de la Mission d’administration intérimaire des Nations
Unies au Kosovo. Ainsi qu’il a été rappelé ci-dessus (voir paragraphe 58),
la résolution 1244 (1999) prévoit d’établir au Kosovo «une administra-

tion intérimaire ... qui assurera une administration transitoire de même
que la mise en place et la supervision des institutions d’auto-administra-
tion démocratiques provisoires» (par. 10). Celle-ci indique en outre que
«les principales responsabilités de la présence internationale civile seront
les suivantes ... [:] [o]rganiser et superviser la mise en place d’institutions

41cratic and autonomous self-government pending a political settlement,
including the holding of elections” (paragraph 11 (c)). Similarly, as

described above (see paragraph 62), under the Constitutional Frame-
work, the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government were to function
in conjunction with and subject to the direction of the Special Repre-
sentative of the Secretary-General in the implementation of Security
Council resolution 1244 (1999).

91. The Court notes that Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and
the Constitutional Framework were still in force and applicable as at
17 February 2008. Paragraph 19 of Security Council resolution 1244
(1999) expressly provides that “the international civil and security

presences are established for an initial period of 12 months, to continue
thereafter unless the Security Council decides otherwise”. No decision
amending resolution 1244 (1999) was taken by the Security Council
at its meeting held on 18 February 2008, when the declaration of independ-
ence was discussed for the first time, or at any subsequent meeting. The
Presidential Statement of 26 November 2008 (S/PRST/2008/44) merely

“welcom[ed] the co-operation between the UN and other international actors,
within the framework of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)” (empha-
sis added). In addition, pursuant to paragraph 21 of Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999), the Security Council decided “to remain actively
seized of the matter” and maintained the item “Security Council resolu-

tions 1160 (1998), 1199 (1998), 1203 (1998), 1239 (1999) and 1244 (1999)”
on its agenda (see, most recently, Report of the Security Council, 1 August
2008-31 July 2009, General Assembly, Official Records, 64th session,
Supplement No. 2, pp. 39 ff. and 132 ff.). Furthermore, Chapter 14.3 of
the Constitutional Framework sets forth that “[t]he SRSG . . . may effect

amendments to this Constitutional Framework”. Minor amendments
were effected by virtue of UNMIK regulations UNMIK/REG/2002/9 of
3 May 2002, UNMIK/REG/2007/29 of 4 October 2007, UNMIK/REG/
2008/1 of 8 January 2008 and UNMIK/REG/2008/9 of 8 February 2008.
Finally, neither Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) nor the Consti-

tutional Framework contains a clause providing for its termination and
neither has been repealed; they therefore constituted the international
law applicable to the situation prevailing in Kosovo on 17 February
2008.

92. In addition, the Special Representative of the Secretary-General
continues to exercise his functions in Kosovo. Moreover, the Secretary-
General has continued to submit periodic reports to the Security Council,
as required by paragraph 20 of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)

(see the most recent quarterly Report of the Secretary-General on the
United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, S/2010/169,
6 April 2010, as well as the preceding Reports S/2008/692 of 24 Novem-

42provisoires pour une administration autonome et démocratique en atten-

dant un règlement politique, notamment la tenue d’élections» (par. 11,
al. c)). De même, ainsi que cela a été exposé ci-dessus (voir paragra-
phe 62), en vertu du cadre constitutionnel, les institutions provisoires
d’administration autonome devaient exercer leurs fonctions conjointe-

ment avec le représentant spécial du Secrétaire général et sous la direction
de celui-ci, aux fins de mettre en Œuvre la résolution 1244 (1999) du
Conseil de sécurité.
91. La Cour observe que la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécu-

rité et le cadre constitutionnel étaient toujours en vigueur et applicables le
17 février 2008. En son paragraphe 19, la résolution 1244 (1999) prévoit
expressément que «la présence internationale civile et la présence inter-
nationale de sécurité sont établies pour une période initiale de douze mois,

et se poursuivront ensuite tant que le Conseil n’en aura pas décidé autre-
ment». Aucune décision portant modification de la résolution 1244 (1999)
n’a été prise par le Conseil de sécurité à sa séance du 18 février 2008, lors-
que la déclaration d’indépendance a été examinée pour la première fois,

ni à aucune séance ultérieure. Dans sa déclaration du 26 novembre 2008
(doc. S/PRST/2008/44), le président du Conseil de sécurité s’est simple-
ment «félicit[é] de la coopération qui exist[ait], dans le cadre de sa résolu-
tion 1244 (1999), entre l’ONU et les autres intervenants internationaux»

(les italiques sont de la Cour). De plus, le Conseil de sécurité a décidé,
aux termes du paragraphe 21 de sa résolution 1244 (1999), «de rester
activement saisi de la question» et a maintenu à son ordre du jour le
point relatif aux «résolutions 1160 (1998), 1199 (1998), 1203 (1998), 1239

(1999) et 1244er1999)» (voir, plus récemment, le rapport du Conseil
de sécurité, 1 août 2008-31 juillet 2009, documents officiels de l’Assem-
blée générale, soixante-quatrième session, supplément n o 2, p. 39 et
suiv. et p. 132 et suiv.). En outre, il est indiqué au point 3 du chapitre 14

du cadre constitutionnel que «[l]e représentant spécial du Secrétaire
général ... peut apporter des modifications au cadre constitutionnel».
Des modifications mineures ont été apportées par les règlements
de la MINUK n o 2002/9 (UNMIK/REG/2002/9) du 3 mai 2002,
o o
n 2007/29 (UNMIK/REG/2007/29) du 4 octobre 2007o n 2008/1 du
8 janvier 2008 (UNMIK/REG/2008/1) et n 2008/9 du 8 février 2008
(UNMIK/REG/2008/9). Enfin, ni la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil
de sécurité ni le cadre constitutionnel ne contiennent de clause

d’extinction ou n’ont été abrogés; ils constituaient par conséquent le
droit international applicable à la situation qui existait au Kosovo le
17 février 2008.
92. Par ailleurs, le représentant spécial du Secrétaire général continue

d’exercer ses fonctions au Kosovo. Le Secrétaire général a en outre conti-
nué de présenter des rapports périodiques au Conseil de sécurité, ainsi
que le prescrit le paragraphe 20 de la résolution 1244 (1999) (voir le plus
récent rapport trimestriel du Secrétaire général sur la Mission d’adminis-

tration intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo, doc. S/2010/169
du 6 avril 2010, ainsi que les précédents rapports, doc. S/2008/692 du

42ber 2008, S/2009/149 of 17 March 2009, S/2009/300 of 10 June 2009,
S/2009/497 of 30 September 2009 and S/2010/5 of 5 January 2010).

93. From the foregoing, the Court concludes that Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) and the Constitutional Framework form part of
the international law which is to be considered in replying to the question
posed by the General Assembly in its request for the advisory opinion.

1. Interpretation of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)

94. Before continuing further, the Court must recall several factors rel-
evant in the interpretation of resolutions of the Security Council. While
the rules on treaty interpretation embodied in Articles 31 and 32 of the
Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties may provide guidance, differ-
ences between Security Council resolutions and treaties mean that the

interpretation of Security Council resolutions also require that other fac-
tors be taken into account. Security Council resolutions are issued by a
single, collective body and are drafted through a very different process
than that used for the conclusion of a treaty. Security Council resolutions
are the product of a voting process as provided for in Article 27 of the

Charter, and the final text of such resolutions represents the view of the
Security Council as a body. Moreover, Security Council resolutions can
be binding on all Member States (Legal Consequences for States of the
Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa)
notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opin-

ion, I.C.J. Reports 1971 , p. 54, para. 116), irrespective of whether they
played any part in their formulation. The interpretation of Security
Council resolutions may require the Court to analyse statements by rep-
resentatives of members of the Security Council made at the time of their
adoption, other resolutions of the Security Council on the same issue, as

well as the subsequent practice of relevant United Nations organs and of
States affected by those given resolutions.

*

95. The Court first notes that resolution 1244 (1999) must be read in
conjunction with the general principles set out in annexes 1 and 2 thereto,
since in the resolution itself, the Security Council: “1. Decide[d] that a
political solution to the Kosovo crisis shall be based on the general prin-
ciples in annex 1 and as further elaborated in the principles and other

required elements in annex 2.” Those general principles sought to defuse
the Kosovo crisis first by ensuring an end to the violence and repression
in Kosovo and by the establishment of an interim administration. A

4324 novembre 2008, doc. S/2009/149 du 17 mars 2009, doc. S/2009/300 du
10 juin 2009, doc. S/2009/497 du 30 septembre 2009 et doc. S/2010/5

du 5 janvier 2010).
93. La Cour conclut de ce qui précède que la résolution 1244 (1999) du
Conseil de sécurité et le cadre constitutionnel font partie du droit inter-
national qu’il convient de considérer pour répondre à la question posée
par l’Assemblée générale dans sa demande d’avis consultatif.

1. Interprétation de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité

94. Avant de poursuivre son examen, la Cour doit rappeler plusieurs
éléments pertinents aux fins d’interpréter les résolutions du Conseil de
sécurité. Il est vrai que les règles relatives à l’interprétation des traités

consacrées par les articles 31 et 32 de la convention de Vienne sur le droit
des traités peuvent fournir certaines indications mais, compte tenu des
différences qui existent entre les instruments conventionnels et les résolu-
tions du Conseil de sécurité, d’autres éléments doivent aussi être pris en
considération aux fins de l’interprétation de ces dernières. Les résolutions

du Conseil de sécurité sont adoptées par un organe collégial unique et
élaborées dans le cadre d’un processus très différent de celui qui permet la
conclusion d’un traité. Elles sont adoptées à l’issue d’un vote, comme il
est prévu à l’article 27 de la Charte, et leur texte final exprime la position
du Conseil de sécurité en tant qu’organe. De plus, les résolutions du

Conseil de sécurité peuvent être contraignantes à l’égard de tous les Etats
Membres (Conséquences juridiques pour les Etats de la présence continue
de l’Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain) nonobstant la réso-
lution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité, avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil
1971, p. 54, par. 116), que ceux-ci aient ou non participé à leur formula-

tion. Pour interpréter les résolutions du Conseil de sécurité, la Cour peut
être amenée à examiner certaines déclarations faites par les représentants
d’Etats membres du Conseil de sécurité à l’époque de leur adoption ou
d’autres résolutions de ce dernier ayant trait à la même question, ainsi
qu’à se pencher sur la pratique ultérieure des organes pertinents de

l’Organisation des Nations Unies et des Etats à l’égard desquels les réso-
lutions en question ont une incidence.

*

95. La Cour fait tout d’abord observer que la résolution 1244 (1999)
doit être lue conjointement avec les principes généraux énoncés dans ses

annexes 1 et 2, puisque, dans le corps de la résolution, le Conseil de sécu-
rité a «1. [d]écid[é] que la solution politique de la crise au Kosovo repo-
sera[it] sur les principes généraux énoncés à l’annexe 1 et les principes et
conditions plus détaillés figurant à l’annexe 2». Ces principes généraux

avaient pour objet de régler la crise du Kosovo, tout d’abord en faisant
en sorte que cessent la violence et la répression, puis en mettant en place

43longer-term solution was also envisaged, in that resolution 1244 (1999)
was to initiate

“[a] political process towards the establishment of an interim
political framework agreement providing for a substantial self-

government for Kosovo, taking full account of the Rambouillet
accords and the principles of sovereignty and territorial integrity of
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia and the other countries of the
region, and the demilitarization of the KLA” (Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) of 10 June 1999, Ann. 1, sixth principle;

ibid., Ann. 2, para. 8).
Further, it bears recalling that the tenth preambular paragraph of resolu-

tion 1244 (1999) also recalled the sovereignty and the territorial integrity
of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
96. Having earlier outlined the principal characteristics of Security
Council resolution 1244 (1999) (see paragraphs 58 to 59), the Court next
observes that three distinct features of that resolution are relevant for dis-
cerning its object and purpose.

97. First, resolution 1244 (1999) establishes an international civil and
security presence in Kosovo with full civil and political authority and sole
responsibility for the governance of Kosovo. As described above (see
paragraph 60), on 12 June 1999, the Secretary-General presented to the
Security Council his preliminary operational concept for the overall

organization of the civil presence under UNMIK. On 25 July 1999, the
Special Representative of the Secretary-General promulgated UNMIK
regulation 1999/1, deemed to have entered into force as of 10 June 1999,
the date of adoption of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999). Under
this regulation, “[a]ll legislative and executive authority with respect to

Kosovo, including the administration of the judiciary”, was vested in
UNMIK and exercised by the Special Representative. Viewed together,
resolution 1244 (1999) and UNMIK regulation 1999/1 therefore had the
effect of superseding the legal order in force at that time in the territory
of Kosovo and setting up an international territorial administration. For

this reason, the establishment of civil and security presences in Kosovo
deployed on the basis of resolution 1244 (1999) must be understood as an
exceptional measure relating to civil, political and security aspects and
aimed at addressing the crisis existing in that territory in 1999.

98. Secondly, the solution embodied in resolution 1244 (1999), namely,
the implementation of an interim international territorial administration,
was designed for humanitarian purposes; to provide a means for the
stabilization of Kosovo and for the re-establishment of a basic public
order in an area beset by crisis. This becomes apparent in the text of reso-

lution 1244 (1999) itself which, in its second preambular paragraph, recalls
Security Council resolution 1239, adopted on 14 May 1999, in which the
Security Council had expressed “grave concern at the humanitarian crisis

44une administration intérimaire. La résolution 1244 (1999) prévoyait aussi
une solution à plus long terme, consistant à engager

«[u]n processus politique en vue de l’établissement d’un accord-cadre

politique intérimaire prévoyant pour le Kosovo une autonomie subs-
tantielle, qui tienne pleinement compte des accords de Rambouillet
et du principe de la souveraineté et de l’intégrité territoriale de la
République fédérale de Yougoslavie et des autres pays de la région,
et la démilitarisation de l’ALK» (résolution 1244 (1999) (10 juin
e
1999) du Conseil de sécurité, annexe 1, 6 principe; ibid., annexe 2,
par. 8).

Il convient en outre de rappeler que le dixième alinéa du préambule de la
résolution 1244 (1999) rappelait également la souveraineté et l’intégrité
territoriale de la République fédérale de Yougoslavie.
96. Ayant exposé plus haut les principales caractéristiques de la résolu-

tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité (voir paragraphes 58 et 59), la
Cour relève que trois d’entre elles sont pertinentes aux fins de déterminer
l’objet et le but de cette résolution.
97. Premièrement, la résolution 1244 (1999) établit, au Kosovo, une
présence internationale civile et de sécurité ayant pleine autorité civile et

politique, seule responsable de la gestion des affaires publiques du
Kosovo. Ainsi qu’il a été indiqué ci-dessus (voir paragraphe 60), le Secré-
taire général a, le 12 juin 1999, exposé au Conseil de sécurité un concept
d’opération préliminaire pour l’organisation globale de la présence civile

sous l’autorité de la MINUK. Le 25 juillet 1999, le représentant spécial
du Secrétaire général a promulgué le règlement n° 1999/1 de la MINUK,
réputé être entré en vigueur le 10 juin 1999, date d’adoption de la résolu-
tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité. Selon ce règlement, «tous les
pouvoirs législatifs et exécutifs afférents au Kosovo, y compris l’adminis-

tration de l’ordre judiciaire», étaient dévolus à la MINUK et exercés
par le représentant spécial. Pris conjointement, la résolution 1244 (1999)
et le règlement n 1999/1 de la MINUK ont par conséquent eu pour effet
de se substituer à l’ordre juridique qui était alors en vigueur sur le terri-

toire du Kosovo et d’établir une administration internationale de ce
territoire. Dès lors, le déploiement de présences civile et de sécurité au
Kosovo en vertu de la résolution 1244 (1999) doit être considéré comme
une mesure exceptionnelle concernant les aspects civils, politiques et de
sécurité, et visant à répondre à la crise dont ce territoire était le théâtre

en 1999.
98. Deuxièmement, la solution énoncée dans la résolution 1244 (1999),
à savoir la mise en place d’une administration territoriale internationale
et intérimaire, visait des objectifs humanitaires. Elle devait être un moyen

de stabiliser le Kosovo et de rétablir les bases de l’ordre public dans une
zone en crise. Cela ressort de la résolution 1244 (1999) elle-même, qui, au
deuxième alinéa de son préambule, rappelle la résolution 1239 du Conseil
de sécurité, adoptée le 14 mai 1999, dans laquelle celui-ci s’était déclaré
«gravement préoccupé par la catastrophe humanitaire qui sévi[ssait] au

44in and around Kosovo”. The priorities which are identified in
paragraph 11 of resolution 1244 (1999) were elaborated further in the

so-called “four pillars” relating to the governance of Kosovo described
in the Report of the Secretary-General of 12 June 1999 (paragraph 60
above). By placing an emphasis on these “four pillars”, namely, interim
civil administration, humanitarian affairs, institution building and recon-
struction, and by assigning responsibility for these core components to

different international organizations and agencies, resolution 1244 (1999)
was clearly intended to bring about stabilization and reconstruction. The
interim administration in Kosovo was designed to suspend temporarily
Serbia’s exercise of its authority flowing from its continuing sovereignty
over the territory of Kosovo. The purpose of the legal régime established

under resolution 1244 (1999) was to establish, organize and oversee the
development of local institutions of self-government in Kosovo under the
aegis of the interim international presence.

99. Thirdly, resolution 1244 (1999) clearly establishes an interim
régime; it cannot be understood as putting in place a permanent insti-

tutional framework in the territory of Kosovo. This resolution man-
dated UNMIK merely to facilitate the desired negotiated solution for
Kosovo’s future status, without prejudging the outcome of the negotiat-
ing process.
100. The Court thus concludes that the object and purpose of resolu-

tion 1244 (1999) was to establish a temporary, exceptional legal régime
which, save to the extent that it expressly preserved it, superseded the
Serbian legal order and which aimed at the stabilization of Kosovo, and
that it was designed to do so on an interim basis.

2. The question whether the declaration of independence is in accordance
with Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) and the measures adopted
thereunder

101. The Court will now turn to the question whether Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999), or the measures adopted thereunder, introduces a
specific prohibition on issuing a declaration of independence, applicable
to those who adopted the declaration of independence of 17 February

2008. In order to answer this question, it is first necessary, as explained in
paragraph 52 above, for the Court to determine precisely who issued that
declaration.

(a) The identity of the authors of the declaration of independence

102. The Court needs to determine whether the declaration of inde-
pendence of 17 February 2008 was an act of the “Assembly of Kosovo”,
one of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government, established under

45Kosovo ... et aux alentours». Les priorités énoncées au paragraphe 11 de
la résolution 1244 (1999) ont été définies de façon plus détaillée dans les

«quatre piliers» relatifs à la gestion des affaires publiques du Kosovo
présentés dans le rapport du Secrétaire général du 12 juin 1999 (paragra-
phe 60 ci-dessus). En mettant l’accent sur ces «quatre piliers» — à savoir
l’administration civile intérimaire, les affaires humanitaires, le renforce-
ment des institutions et la reconstruction — et en en confiant la respon-

sabilité à différentes organisations et institutions internationales, la réso-
lution 1244 (1999) avait clairement pour objet de faciliter la stabilisation
et la reconstruction. La mise en place de l’administration intérimaire au
Kosovo visait à suspendre temporairement l’exercice par la Serbie des

pouvoirs découlant de la souveraineté dont elle demeurait titulaire sur le
territoire du Kosovo. Le régime juridique établi par la résolution 1244
(1999) avait pour but d’engager, d’organiser et de superviser la création
des institutions d’administration autonome locales du Kosovo sous les
auspices de la présence internationale intérimaire.

99. Troisièmement, la résolution 1244 (1999) établit clairement un
régime intérimaire; elle ne saurait être considérée comme instaurant un
cadre institutionnel permanent sur le territoire du Kosovo. Par cette réso-
lution la MINUK était simplement chargée de faciliter la solution négo-
ciée recherchée pour le statut futur du Kosovo, sans préjuger du résultat

du processus de négociation.
100. La Cour conclut donc que l’objet et le but de la résolution 1244
(1999) étaient d’établir un régime juridique temporaire de caractère excep-
tionnel qui s’est substitué, sauf lorsqu’il l’a expressément conservé, à
l’ordre juridique serbe et visait à stabiliser le Kosovo; ce régime était

censé s’appliquer à titre transitoire.

2. Question de la conformité de la déclaration d’indépendance à la
résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité et aux mesures adoptées
en vertu de celle-ci

101. La Cour examinera à présent la question de savoir si la résolu-

tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité, ou les mesures adoptées en vertu
de celle-ci, ont eu pour effet de créer une interdiction spécifique de toute
déclaration d’indépendance, interdiction qui serait applicable à ceux qui
ont adopté la déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008. Pour répon-
dre à cette question, la Cour doit, ainsi qu’exposé au paragraphe 52

ci-dessus, commencer par déterminer précisément de qui émane cette
déclaration.

a) L’identité des auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance

102. La Cour doit déterminer si la déclaration d’indépendance du

17 février 2008 constituait un acte de l’«Assemblée du Kosovo» en tant
qu’institution provisoire d’administration autonome établie conformé-

45Chapter 9 of the Constitutional Framework, or whether those who
adopted the declaration were acting in a different capacity.

103. The Court notes that different views have been expressed regard-
ing this question. On the one hand, it has been suggested in the proceed-
ings before the Court that the meeting in which the declaration
was adopted was a session of the Assembly of Kosovo, operating as a
Provisional Institution of Self-Government within the limits of the

Constitutional Framework. Other participants have observed that both
the language of the document and the circumstances under which it was
adopted clearly indicate that the declaration of 17 February 2008 was
not the work of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government and did
not take effect within the legal framework created for the Government of

Kosovo during the interim phase.
104. The Court notes that, when opening the meeting of 17 February
2008 at which the declaration of independence was adopted, the Presi-
dent of the Assembly and the Prime Minister of Kosovo made reference
to the Assembly of Kosovo and the Constitutional Framework. The
Court considers, however, that the declaration of independence must be

seen in its larger context, taking into account the events preceding its
adoption, notably relating to the so-called “final status process” (see
paragraphs 64 to 73). Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) was mostly
concerned with setting up an interim framework of self-government
for Kosovo (see paragraph 58 above). Although, at the time of the adop-

tion of the resolution, it was expected that the final status of Kosovo
would flow from, and be developed within, the framework set up by the
resolution, the specific contours, let alone the outcome, of the final status
process were left open by Security Council resolution 1244 (1999).
Accordingly, its paragraph 11, especially in its subparagrad)s,(e)and(f),

deals with final status issues only in so far as it is made part of UNMIK’s
responsibilities to “[f]acilitat[e] a political process designed to determine
Kosovo’s future status, taking into account the Rambouillet accords”
and “[i]n a final stage, [to oversee] the transfer of authority from Kos-
ovo’s provisional institutions to institutions established under a political

settlement”.

105. The declaration of independence reflects the awareness of its
authors that the final status negotiations had failed and that a critical
moment for the future of Kosovo had been reached. The preamble of the

declaration refers to the “years of internationally-sponsored negotiations
between Belgrade and Pristina over the question of our future political
status” and expressly puts the declaration in the context of the failure of
the final status negotiations, inasmuch as it states that “no mutually-
acceptable status outcome was possible” (tenth and eleventh preambular

paragraphs). Proceeding from there, the authors of the declaration of
independence emphasize their determination to “resolve” the status of
Kosovo and to give the people of Kosovo “clarity about their future”

46ment au chapitre 9 du cadre constitutionnel, ou si ceux qui ont adopté
cette déclaration agissaient en une autre qualité.

103. La Cour note que des vues différentes ont été exprimées à ce
sujet. D’une part, il a été avancé dans le cadre de la procédure devant la
Cour que la réunion au cours de laquelle la déclaration avait été adoptée
était une séance de l’Assemblée du Kosovo, siégeant en tant qu’institu-
tion provisoire d’administration autonome dans les limites du cadre cons-

titutionnel. Pour d’autres participants, en revanche, tant le libellé du
document que les circonstances de son adoption indiquent clairement que
la déclaration du 17 février 2008 n’était pas l’Œuvre des institutions pro-
visoires d’administration autonome et qu’elle n’a pas pris effet dans le
cadre juridique créé aux fins de l’administration du Kosovo pendant la

période intérimaire.
104. La Cour relève que, lorsqu’ils ont ouvert la réunion du 17 février
2008 à laquelle la déclaration d’indépendance a été adoptée, le président
de l’Assemblée et le premier ministre du Kosovo ont fait référence à
l’Assemblée du Kosovo et au cadre constitutionnel. La Cour estime
cependant que la déclaration d’indépendance doit être envisagée dans son

contexte plus général, compte tenu des événements qui ont précédé son
adoption, en particulier ceux liés à ce qu’il est convenu d’appeler le «pro-
cessus de détermination du statut final» (voir paragraphes 64 à 73). La
résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité visait surtout à mettre en
place un cadre provisoire pour l’administration autonome du Kosovo

(voir paragraphe 58 ci-dessus). Si, lors de l’adoption de la résolution, la
conviction prévalait que le statut final du Kosovo découlerait du cadre
institutionnel établi par celle-ci et serait élaboré dans ce cadre, les contours
précis et, a fortiori, l’issue du processus de détermination du statut final
furent laissés en suspens dans la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de

sécurité. Ainsi, le paragraphe 11 de la résolution, tout particulièrement
dans ses alinéas d), e) et f), ne traite-t-il de questions liées au statut final
que dans la mesure où il inscrit au nombre des responsabilités de la
MINUK celles de «[f]aciliter un processus politique visant à déterminer
le statut futur du Kosovo, en tenant compte des accords de Rambouillet»

et, «[à] un stade final, [de] superviser le transfert des pouvoirs des insti-
tutions provisoires du Kosovo aux institutions qui auront été établies
dans le cadre d’un règlement politique».
105. Il ressort de la déclaration d’indépendance que ses auteurs avaient
pris conscience de l’échec des négociations relatives au statut final et du
tournant décisif auquel se trouvait le Kosovo. Dans son préambule, la

déclaration fait référence aux «années de négociations sous l’égide de la
communauté internationale entre Belgrade et Pristina sur la question [du]
futur statut politique [du Kosovo]» et s’inscrit expressément dans le
contexte de l’échec des négociations sur le statut final puisque, y est-il
indiqué, «aucun accord n’[a] pu être trouvé concernant un statut accep-

table pour les deux parties» (dixième et onzième alinéas du préambule).
Partant de là, les auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance soulignent
qu’ils sont résolus à «trouver un règlement» à la question du statut du

46(thirteenth preambular paragraph). This language indicates that the
authors of the declaration did not seek to act within the standard frame-

work of interim self-administration of Kosovo, but aimed at establishing
Kosovo “as an independent and sovereign State” (para. 1). The declara-
tion of independence, therefore, was not intended by those who adopted
it to take effect within the legal order created for the interim phase, nor
was it capable of doing so. On the contrary, the Court considers that the

authors of that declaration did not act, or intend to act, in the capacity of
an institution created by and empowered to act within that legal order
but, rather, set out to adopt a measure the significance and effects of
which would lie outside that order.

106. This conclusion is reinforced by the fact that the authors of the
declaration undertook to fulfil the international obligations of Kosovo,
notably those created for Kosovo by UNMIK (para. 9), and expressly
and solemnly declared Kosovo to be bound vis-à-vis third States by the
commitments made in the declaration (para. 12). By contrast, under the

régime of the Constitutional Framework, all matters relating to the man-
agement of the external relations of Kosovo were the exclusive preroga-
tive of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General:

“(m) concluding agreements with states and international organi-
zations in all matters within the scope of UNSCR 1244 (1999);

(n) overseeing the fulfilment of commitments in international
agreements entered into on behalf of UNMIK;
(o) external relations, including with States and international
organizations . . .” (Chap. 8.1 of the Constitutional Frame-
work, “Powers and Responsibilities Reserved to the SRSG”),

with the Special Representative of the Secretary-General only consulting

and co-operating with the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government in
these matters.
107. Certain features of the text of the declaration and the circum-
stances of its adoption also point to the same conclusion. Nowhere in the
original Albanian text of the declaration (which is the sole authentic text)
is any reference made to the declaration being the work of the Assembly

of Kosovo. The words “Assembly of Kosovo” appear at the head of the
declaration only in the English and French translations contained in the
dossier submitted on behalf of the Secretary-General. The language used
in the declaration differs from that employed in acts of the Assembly of
Kosovo in that the first paragraph commences with the phrase “We, the

democratically-elected leaders of our people . . .”, whereas acts of the
Assembly of Kosovo employ the third person singular.

47Kosovo et à donner au peuple kosovar «une vision claire de son avenir»
(treizième alinéa du préambule). Les termes utilisés indiquent que les

auteurs de la déclaration n’entendaient pas agir dans le cadre normal du
régime intérimaire d’administration autonome du Kosovo mais voulaient
faire de ce dernier un «Etat souverain et indépendant» (ibid., par. 1). La
déclaration d’indépendance n’était donc pas destinée, dans l’esprit de
ceux qui l’ont adoptée, à prendre effet au sein de l’ordre juridique ins-

tauré aux fins de la phase intérimaire — chose qui, d’ailleurs, aurait été
impossible. Au contraire, la Cour considère que les auteurs de cette
déclaration n’ont pas agi, et n’ont pas entendu agir, en qualité d’institu-
tion née de cet ordre juridique et habilitée à exercer ses fonctions dans ce
cadre, mais qu’ils ont décidé d’adopter une mesure dont l’importance et

les effets iraient au-delà.
106. Cette conclusion est renforcée par le fait que les auteurs de la
déclaration se sont engagés à assumer les obligations internationales du
Kosovo, notamment celles auxquelles la MINUK avait souscrit en son
nom (ibid., par. 9), et qu’ils ont expressément et solennellement affirmé
que le Kosovo serait lié, envers les Etats tiers, par les engagements pris

dans la déclaration (ibid., par. 12). Or, selon le régime établi par le cadre
constitutionnel, toutes les questions touchant à la direction des relations
extérieures du Kosovo relevaient exclusivement du représentant spécial
du Secrétaire général:

«m) conclusion d’accords avec les Etats et les organisations inter-
nationales dans tous les domaines relevant de la résolution
1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité;

n) contrôle du respect des engagements pris dans le cadre d’ac-
cords internationaux conclus au nom de la MINUK;
o) relations extérieures, notamment avec les Etats et les organisa-
tions internationales ...» (chapitre 8.1 du cadre constitution-
nel, intitulé «Pouvoirs et attributions réservés au représentant

spécial du Secrétaire général»),
le représentant spécial du Secrétaire général se bornant à tenir des consul-

tations et à coopérer avec les institutions provisoires d’administration
autonome du Kosovo dans ces domaines.
107. Certaines particularités du texte de la déclaration et les circons-
tances dans lesquelles celle-ci a été adoptée militent également en faveur
de cette conclusion. Dans le texte original albanais (qui constitue le
seul texte faisant foi), il n’est indiqué nulle part que la déclaration

émane de l’Assemblée du Kosovo. L’expression «Assemblée du Ko-
sovo» n’apparaît en tête de la déclaration que dans les traductions
française et anglaise contenues dans le dossier déposé au nom du Secré-
taire général. Les termes employés dans la déclaration, dont le premier
paragraphe commence par «Nous, dirigeants démocratiquement élus de

notre peuple», diffèrent de ceux qui sont utilisés dans les actes adoptés
par l’Assemblée du Kosovo, où la troisième personne du singulier est
d’usage.

47 Moreover, the procedure employed in relation to the declaration dif-
fered from that employed by the Assembly of Kosovo for the adoption of

legislation. In particular, the declaration was signed by all those present
when it was adopted, including the President of Kosovo, who (as noted
in paragraph 76 above) was not a member of the Assembly of Kosovo. In
fact, the self-reference of the persons adopting the declaration of inde-
pendence as “the democratically-elected leaders of our people” immedi-

ately precedes the actual declaration of independence within the text
(“hereby declare Kosovo to be an independent and sovereign State”;
para. 1). It is also noticeable that the declaration was not forwarded to
the Special Representative of the Secretary-General for publication in the
Official Gazette.

108. The reaction of the Special Representative of the Secretary-
General to the declaration of independence is also of some significance.
The Constitutional Framework gave the Special Representative power
to oversee and, in certain circumstances, annul the acts of the Provisional
Institutions of Self-Government. On previous occasions, in particular in

the period between 2002 and 2005, when the Assembly of Kosovo took
initiatives to promote the independence of Kosovo, the Special Repre-
sentative had qualified a number of acts as being incompatible with the
Constitutional Framework on the grounds that they were deemed to be
“beyond the scope of [the Assembly’s] competencies” (United Nations

dossier No. 189, 7 February 2003) and therefore outside the powers of
the Assembly of Kosovo.
The silence of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General in
the face of the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 suggests
that he did not consider that the declaration was an act of the Provisional

Institutions of Self-Government designed to take effect within the legal
order for the supervision of which he was responsible. As the practice
shows, he would have been under a duty to take action with regard to
acts of the Assembly of Kosovo which he considered to be ultra vires.

The Court accepts that the Report of the Secretary-General on the
United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo, submitted to
the Security Council on 28 March 2008, stated that “the Assembly of
Kosovo held a session during which it adopted a ‘declaration of inde-
pendence’, declaring Kosovo an independent and sovereign State”
(United Nations doc. S/2008/211, para. 3). This was the normal periodic

report on UNMIK activities, the purpose of which was to inform the
Security Council about developments in Kosovo; it was not intended as
a legal analysis of the declaration or the capacity in which those who
adopted it had acted.
109. The Court thus arrives at the conclusion that, taking all factors

together, the authors of the declaration of independence of 17 February
2008 did not act as one of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Govern-
ment within the Constitutional Framework, but rather as persons who

48 En outre, la procédure suivie à l’égard de la déclaration différait de
celle utilisée par l’Assemblée du Kosovo pour l’adoption des textes légis-

latifs. En particulier, lorsqu’elle a été adoptée, la déclaration a été signée
par l’ensemble des personnes présentes, y compris le président du Kosovo,
qui (ainsi qu’indiqué au paragraphe 76 ci-dessus) n’était pas membre de
l’Assemblée du Kosovo. En fait, le passage dans lequel les personnes
ayant adopté la déclaration d’indépendance se présentent elles-mêmes

comme les «dirigeants démocratiquement élus [du] peuple» précède immé-
diatement la déclaration d’indépendance dans le corps du texte («décla-
rons par la présente que le Kosovo est un Etat souverain et indépen-
dant»; par. 1). Il convient également de noter que la déclaration n’a pas

été transmise au représentant spécial du Secrétaire général pour publica-
tion au Journal officiel.
108. La réaction du représentant spécial du Secrétaire général à la
déclaration d’indépendance n’est pas non plus dénuée d’intérêt. Le cadre
constitutionnel conférait à celui-ci le pouvoir de superviser et, dans

certaines circonstances, d’annuler les actes des institutions provi-
soires d’administration autonome. Par le passé, en particulier entre
2002 et 2005, période pendant laquelle l’Assemblée du Kosovo avait
pris certaines initiatives en faveur de l’indépendance du Kosovo, le
représentant spécial avait jugé plusieurs actes incompatibles avec le cadre

constitutionnel au motif qu’ils «dépass[aient] le champ de compétences
[de l’Assemblée]» (dossier déposé par l’Organisation des Nations Unies,
pièce n 189, 7 février 2003) et excédaient donc les pouvoirs de l’Assemblée
du Kosovo.
Le silence du représentant spécial du Secrétaire général face à la décla-

ration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 semble indiquer que celui-ci
ne la considérait pas comme un acte des institutions provisoires d’admi-
nistration autonome censé prendre effet dans le cadre de l’ordre juri-
dique dont la supervision lui incombait. Il ressort de la pratique du
représentant spécial qu’il aurait été de son devoir d’agir à l’encontre

d’actes de l’Assemblée du Kosovo qui constituaient, selon lui, un excès
de pouvoir.
La Cour reconnaît que, dans son rapport sur la mission d’administra-
tion intérimaire des Nations Unies au Kosovo soumis au Conseil de sécu-
rité le 28 mars 2008, le Secrétaire général indiquait que, «[l]ors d’une

séance..., l’Assemblée du Kosovo a[vait] adopté une «déclaration d’indé-
pendance» proclamant le Kosovo Etat indépendant et souverain» (Nations
Unies, doc. S/2008/211, par. 3). Il s’agissait du rapport périodique
normal consacré aux activités de la MINUK, dont le but était de tenir le
Conseil de sécurité informé de l’évolution de la situation au Kosovo; ce

rapport n’était pas censé constituer une analyse juridique de la déclaration
ou de la qualité en laquelle avaient agi ceux qui l’avaient adoptée.
109. L’ensemble de ces éléments amène ainsi la Cour à conclure
que la déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 n’est pas le fait de

l’Assemblée du Kosovo en tant qu’institution provisoire d’administra-
tion autonome agissant dans les limites du cadre constitutionnel, mais

48acted together in their capacity as representatives of the people of Kos-
ovo outside the framework of the interim administration.

(b) The question whether the authors of the declaration of indepen-
dence acted in violation of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)
or the measures adopted thereunder

110. Having established the identity of the authors of the declaration
of independence, the Court turns to the question whether their act in
promulgating the declaration was contrary to any prohibition contained

in Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) or the Constitutional Frame-
work adopted thereunder.
111. The Court recalls that this question has been a matter of contro-
versy in the present proceedings. Some participants to the proceedings
have contended that the declaration of independence of 17 February
2008 was a unilateral attempt to bring to an end the international pres-

ence established by Security Council resolution 1244 (1999), a result
which it is said could only be effectuated by a decision of the Security
Council itself. It has also been argued that a permanent settlement for
Kosovo could only be achieved either by agreement of all parties involved
(notably including the consent of the Republic of Serbia) or by a specific

Security Council resolution endorsing a specific final status for Kosovo,
as provided for in the Guiding Principles of the Contact Group. Accord-
ing to this view, the unilateral action on the part of the authors of the
declaration of independence cannot be reconciled with Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) and thus constitutes a violation of that resolution.

112. Other participants have submitted to the Court that Security
Council resolution 1244 (1999) did not prevent or exclude the possibility
of Kosovo’s independence. They argued that the resolution only regu-
lates the interim administration of Kosovo, but not its final or permanent

status. In particular, the argument was put forward that Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999) does not create obligations under international
law prohibiting the issuance of a declaration of independence or making
it invalid, and does not make the authors of the declaration of independ-
ence its addressees. According to this position, if the Security Council
had wanted to preclude a declaration of independence, it would have

done so in clear and unequivocal terms in the text of the resolution, as it
did in resolution 787 (1992) concerning the Republika Srpska. In addi-
tion, it was argued that the references, in the annexes of Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999), to the Rambouillet accords and thus indirectly to
the “will of the people” (see Chapter 8.3 of the Rambouillet accords) of

Kosovo, support the view that Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)
not only did not oppose the declaration of independence, but indeed con-
templated it. Other participants contended that at least once the negoti-

49est celui de personnes ayant agi de concert en leur qualité de représen-
tants du peuple du Kosovo, en dehors du cadre de l’administration

intérimaire.

b) La question de la violation éventuelle par les auteurs de la décla-
ration d’indépendance de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de
sécurité ou des mesures adoptées en vertu de celle-ci

110. Ayant établi l’identité des auteurs de la déclaration d’indépen-
dance, la Cour en vient à la question de savoir si, en prononçant la décla-

ration, ceux-ci sont allés à l’encontre d’une éventuelle interdiction
contenue dans la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité ou dans
le cadre constitutionnel adopté en vertu de celle-ci.
111. La Cour rappelle que cette question a donné matière à contro-
verse durant la présente procédure. Certains participants à celle-ci ont

affirmé que la déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 constituait
une tentative unilatérale de mettre un terme à la présence internationale
établie par la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité, ce que seule
permettrait une décision du Conseil de sécurité lui-même. Il a également
été soutenu qu’un règlement définitif de la question du statut du Kosovo

ne pouvait être obtenu que par le moyen soit d’un accord de toutes les
parties prenantes (c’est-à-dire, notamment, avec le consentement de la
République de Serbie), soit d’une résolution expresse du Conseil de sécu-
rité entérinant un statut final spécifique pour le Kosovo, ainsi qu’il est
prévu dans les principes directeurs du groupe de contact. Selon ce point

de vue, l’action unilatérale des auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance
serait inconciliable avec la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité
et constituerait donc une violation de celle-ci.
112. D’autres participants ont soutenu devant la Cour que la résolu-
tion 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité n’interdisait pas l’indépendance du

Kosovo et n’en excluait pas la possibilité. Ils ont affirmé que la résolution
régissait uniquement l’administration intérimaire du Kosovo, mais non le
statut final ou permanent de ce dernier. En particulier, a-t-il été avancé, la
résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité ne créerait pas, en droit
international, d’obligations faisant obstacle à une déclaration d’indépen-

dance ou frappant une telle déclaration de nullité, et elle ne s’adresserait
pas aux auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance. Selon ce point de vue, si
le Conseil de sécurité avait voulu exclure la possibilité d’une déclaration
d’indépendance, il l’aurait indiqué en des termes clairs et dénués d’ambi-
guïté dans le texte de la résolution, comme il l’avait fait dans la résolu-

tion 787 (1992) concernant la Republika Srpska. En outre, il a été soutenu
que les références, dans les annexes de la résolution 1244 (1999) du
Conseil de sécurité, aux accords de Rambouillet et donc indirectement à la
«volonté du peuple» du Kosovo (voir le chapitre 8.3 des accords de Ram-

bouillet) étayaient l’idée que, dans sa résolution 1244 (1999), le Conseil de
sécurité non seulement n’était pas hostile à la déclaration d’indépendance,

49ating process had been exhausted, Security Council resolution 1244 (1999)
was no longer an obstacle to a declaration of independence.

*

113. The question whether resolution 1244 (1999) prohibits the authors

of the declaration of 17 February 2008 from declaring independence from
the Republic of Serbia can only be answered through a careful reading of
this resolution (see paras. 94 et seq.).
114. First, the Court observes that Security Council resolution 1244
(1999) was essentially designed to create an interim régime for Kosovo,

with a view to channelling the long-term political process to establish its
final status. The resolution did not contain any provision dealing with the
final status of Kosovo or with the conditions for its achievement.

In this regard the Court notes that contemporaneous practice of the
Security Council shows that in situations where the Security Council has

decided to establish restrictive conditions for the permanent status of a
territory, those conditions are specified in the relevant resolution. For
example, although the factual circumstances differed from the situation
in Kosovo, only 19 days after the adoption of resolution 1244 (1999), the
Security Council, in its resolution 1251 of 29 June 1999, reaffirmed its

position that a “Cyprus settlement must be based on a State of Cyprus
with a single sovereignty and international personality and a single citi-
zenship, with its independence and territorial integrity safeguarded”
(para. 11). The Security Council thus set out the specific conditions relat-
ing to the permanent status of Cyprus.

By contrast, under the terms of resolution 1244 (1999) the Security
Council did not reserve for itself the final determination of the situation
in Kosovo and remained silent on the conditions for the final status of
Kosovo.

Resolution 1244 (1999) thus does not preclude the issuance of the dec-
laration of independence of 17 February 2008 because the two instru-
ments operate on a different level: unlike resolution 1244 (1999), the
declaration of independence is an attempt to determine finally the status
of Kosovo.
115. Secondly, turning to the question of the addressees of Security

Council resolution 1244 (1999), as described above (see paragraph 58), it
sets out a general framework for the “deployment in Kosovo, under
United Nations auspices, of international civil and security presences”
(para. 5). It is mostly concerned with creating obligations and authoriza-
tions for United Nations Member States as well as for organs of the

United Nations such as the Secretary-General and his Special Repre-
sentative (see notably paras. 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 and 11 of Security Council
resolution 1244 (1999)). The only point at which resolution 1244 (1999)

50mais allait même jusqu’à l’envisager. D’autres participants ont soutenu
que, une fois épuisée la voie des négociations, la résolution 1244 (1999) ne

faisait plus obstacle à une déclaration d’indépendance.

*
113. La réponse à la question de savoir si la résolution 1244 (1999)

interdisait aux auteurs de la déclaration du 17 février 2008 de proclamer
l’indépendance du Kosovo vis-à-vis de la République de Serbie passe néces-
sairement par une lecture attentive de cette résolution (voir par. 94 et suiv.).
114. En premier lieu, la Cour fait observer que la résolution 1244

(1999) visait essentiellement à instaurer un régime intérimaire pour le
Kosovo, en vue d’encadrer le processus politique destiné à établir, à long
terme, le statut final de celui-ci. Cette résolution ne contenait aucune
disposition concernant le statut final du Kosovo ou les conditions aux-
quelles ce statut devait satisfaire.

A cet égard, la Cour relève que, au vu de la pratique suivie à l’époque
par le Conseil de sécurité, lorsque celui-ci décidait de fixer des conditions
restrictives quant au statut permanent d’un territoire, ces conditions
étaient précisées dans la résolution pertinente. Dans le cas de Chypre, par
exemple, même si les circonstances factuelles étaient différentes de celles

du Kosovo, le Conseil a, dans sa résolution 1251 du 29 juin 1999 — soit
dix-neuf jours seulement après l’adoption de la résolution 1244 (1999) —,
réaffirmé sa position selon laquelle «le règlement du problème de Chypre
d[evait]t être fondé sur un Etat de Chypre doté d’une souveraineté, d’une
personnalité internationale et d’une citoyenneté uniques, son indépen-

dance et son intégrité territoriale étant garanties» (par. 11). Le Conseil de
sécurité a de la sorte énoncé les conditions spécifiques relatives au statut
permanent de Chypre.
Le libellé de la résolution 1244 (1999) montre en revanche que le
Conseil de sécurité ne s’est pas réservé le règlement définitif de la situa-

tion au Kosovo, et il est resté silencieux sur les conditions du statut
final.
La résolution 1244 (1999) n’excluait donc pas l’adoption de la déclara-
tion d’indépendance du 17 février 2008, ces deux textes étant de nature
différente: contrairement à la résolution 1244 (1999), la déclaration

d’indépendance constitue une tentative de déterminer définitivement le
statut du Kosovo.
115. En second lieu, pour en venir à la question des destinataires de la
résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité, celle-ci, comme indiqué
plus haut (voir paragraphe 58), établit un cadre général pour le «déploie-

ment au Kosovo, sous l’égide de l’Organisation des Nations Unies, de
présences internationales civile et de sécurité» (par. 5). Elle vise principa-
lement à imposer certaines obligations et à conférer certaines autorisa-
tions aux Etats Membres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies ainsi qu’à

des organes de l’Organisation tels que le Secrétaire général et son repré-
sentant spécial (voir, notamment, les paragraphes 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 et 11 de

50expressly mentions other actors relates to the Security Council’s demand,
on the one hand, “that the KLA and other armed Kosovo Albanian

groups end immediately all offensive actions and comply with the require-
ments for demilitarization” (para. 15) and, on the other hand, for the
“full co-operation by all concerned, including the international security
presence, with the International Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia”
(para. 14). There is no indication, in the text of Security Council resolu-

tion 1244 (1999), that the Security Council intended to impose, beyond
that, a specific obligation to act or a prohibition from acting, addressed
to such other actors.
116. The Court recalls in this regard that it has not been uncommon
for the Security Council to make demands on actors other than United

Nations Member States and inter-governmental organizations. More spe-
cifically, a number of Security Council resolutions adopted on the subject
of Kosovo prior to Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) contained
demands addressed eo nomine to the Kosovo Albanian leadership. For
example, resolution 1160 (1998) “[c]all[ed] upon the authorities in Bel-
grade and the leadership of the Kosovar Albanian community urgently to

enter without preconditions into a meaningful dialogue on political status
issues” (resolution 1160 (1998), para. 4; emphasis added). Resolution 1199
(1998) included four separate demands on the Kosovo Albanian leader-
ship, i.e., improving the humanitarian situation, entering into a dialogue
with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, pursuing their goals by peaceful

means only, and co-operating fully with the Prosecutor of the Interna-
tional Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (resolution
1199 (1998), paras. 2, 3, 6 and 13). Resolution 1203 (1998) “[d]em-
and[ed] . . . that the Kosovo Albanian leadership and all other elements
of the Kosovo Albanian community comply fully and swiftly with reso-

lutions 1160 (1998) and 1199 (1998) and co-operate fully with the OSCE
Verification Mission in Kosovo” (resolution 1203 (1998), para. 4).
The same resolution also called upon the “Kosovo Albanian leadership
to enter immediately into a meaningful dialogue without preconditions
and with international involvement, and to a clear timetable, leading to

an end of the crisis and to a negotiated political solution to the issue of
Kosovo”; demanded that “the Kosovo Albanian leadership and all
others concerned respect the freedom of movement of the OSCE Verification
Mission and other international personnel”; “[i]nsist[ed] that the Kosovo
Albanian leadership condemn all terrorist actions”; and demanded that
the Kosovo Albanian leadership “co-operate with international efforts to

improve the humanitarian situation and to avert the impending humani-
tarian catastrophe” (resolution 1203 (1998), paras. 5, 6, 10 and 11).

117. Such reference to the Kosovo Albanian leadership or other actors,
notwithstanding the somewhat general reference to “all concerned”

51la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité). La résolution 1244
(1999) ne fait expressément mention d’autres acteurs que lorsque le

Conseil de sécurité exige, d’une part, «que l’ALK et les autres groupes
armés d’Albanais du Kosovo mettent immédiatement fin à toutes opéra-
tions offensives et satisfassent aux exigences en matière de démilitari-
sation» (par. 15) et que, d’autre part, «tous les intéressés, y compris la
présence internationale de sécurité, apportent leur entière coopération au

Tribunal international pour l’ex-Yougoslavie» (par. 14). Cette résolution
n’indique nullement que le Conseil de sécurité ait entendu imposer en sus
une obligation ou une interdiction d’agir spécifique à ces autres acteurs.
116. La Cour rappelle à cet égard qu’il est arrivé que le Conseil de sécu-

rité formule certaines exigences à l’intention d’acteurs autres que les Etats
Membres de l’Organisation des Nations Unies et les organisations inter-
gouvernementales. Plus particulièrement, un certain nombre de résolu-
tions du Conseil de sécurité adoptées au sujet du Kosovo avant la résolu-
tion 1244 (1999) contenaient des exigences nommément adressées aux

dirigeants albanais du Kosovo. Dans la résolution 1160 (1998), par exem-
ple, il était «[d]emand[é] aux autorités de Belgradeet aux dirigeants de la
communauté albanaise kosovare d’engager sans délai et sans conditions
préalables un dialogue constructif sur les questions touchant le statut poli-
tique» (résolution 1160 (1998), par. 4; les italiques sont de la Cour). La

résolution 1199 (1998) énonçait quatre exigences distinctes à l’adresse des
autorités albanaises du Kosovo, les engageant à améliorer la situation
humanitaire, à nouer un dialogue avec la République fédérale de Yougo-
slavie, à poursuivre leurs objectifs uniquement par des moyens pacifiques
et à coopérer pleinement avec le procureur du Tribunal pénal internatio-

nal pour l’ex-Yougoslavie (résolution 1199 (1998), par. 2, 3, 6 et 13). Dans
la résolution 1203 (1998), le Conseil de sécurité «[e]xige[ait] ... que les
dirigeants albanais du Kosovo et tous les autres éléments de la commu-
nauté albanaise du Kosovo respectent strictement et rapidement les
résolutions 1160 (1998) et 1199 (1998), et coopèrent pleinement avec la

Mission de vérification de l’OSCE au Kosovo» (résolution 1203 (1998),
par. 4). Il y invitait également les «dirigeants albanais du Kosovo [à]
engage[r] immédiatement, sans condition et selon un calendrier précis,
un dialogue constructif avec une présence internationale, en vue de
mettre fin à la crise et de parvenir à un règlement politique négocié de la

question du Kosovo»; il exigeait que «les dirigeants albanais du
Kosovo et toutes les autres parties intéressées respectent la liberté de
circulation des membres de la Mission de vérification de l’OSCE et
des autres membres du personnel international», «[d]emand[ait] instam-
ment aux dirigeants albanais du Kosovo de condamner tous les actes

de terrorisme» et les sommait de «coopérer à la réalisation des efforts
déployés à l’échelon international pour améliorer la situation humani-
taire et pour prévenir la catastrophe humanitaire imminente» (résolu-
tion 1203 (1998), par. 5, 6, 10 et 11).

117. Une telle référence aux dirigeants albanais du Kosovo ou à
d’autres acteurs, nonobstant celle, relativement générale, à «tous les inté-

51(para. 14), is missing from the text of Security Council resolution 1244
(1999). When interpreting Security Council resolutions, the Court must

establish, on a case-by-case basis, considering all relevant circumstances,
for whom the Security Council intended to create binding legal obliga-
tions. The language used by the resolution may serve as an important
indicator in this regard. The approach taken by the Court with regard to
the binding effect of Security Council resolutions in general is, mutatis

mutandis, also relevant here. In this context, the Court recalls its previous
statement that:

“The language of a resolution of the Security Council should be
carefully analysed before a conclusion can be made as to its binding
effect. In view of the nature of the powers under Article 25, the ques-
tion whether they have been in fact exercised is to be determined in
each case, having regard to the terms of the resolution to be inter-

preted, the discussions leading to it, the Charter provisions invoked
and, in general, all circumstances that might assist in determining
the legal consequences of the resolution of the Security Council.”
(Legal Consequences for States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security

Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports
1971, p. 53, para. 114.)

118. Bearing this in mind, the Court cannot accept the argument that
Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) contains a prohibition, binding
on the authors of the declaration of independence, against declaring inde-
pendence; nor can such a prohibition be derived from the language of the
resolution understood in its context and considering its object and pur-

pose. The language of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) is at best
ambiguous in this regard. The object and purpose of the resolution, as
has been explained in detail (see paragraphs 96 to 100), is the establish-
ment of an interim administration for Kosovo, without making any
definitive determination on final status issues. The text of the resolution

explains that the
“main responsibilities of the international civil presence will
include . . . [o]rganizing and overseeing the development of provi-

sional institutions for democratic and autonomous self-government
pending a political settlement ” (para. 11 (c) of the resolution;
emphasis added).

The phrase “political settlement”, often cited in the present proceedings,
does not modify this conclusion. First, that reference is made within the
context of enumerating the responsibilities of the international civil pres-
ence, i.e., the Special Representative of the Secretary-General in Kosovo

and UNMIK, and not of other actors. Secondly, as the diverging views
presented to the Court on this matter illustrate, the term “political settle-
ment” is subject to various interpretations. The Court therefore con-

52ressés» (par. 14), ne se retrouve pas dans le texte de la résolution 1244
(1999) du Conseil de sécurité. Lorsqu’elle interprète des résolutions du

Conseil de sécurité, la Cour doit identifier, au cas par cas, compte tenu de
toutes les circonstances pertinentes, les destinataires à l’égard desquels le
Conseil de sécurité a voulu créer des obligations juridiques contraignan-
tes. Les termes utilisés dans la résolution peuvent être riches d’enseigne-
ments à cet égard. La position adoptée par la Cour au sujet de l’effet

obligatoire des résolutions du Conseil de sécurité en général est, mutatis
mutandis, également pertinente en l’espèce. La Cour rappelle ce qu’elle a
déclaré à ce propos:

«Il faut soigneusement analyser le libellé d’une résolution du
Conseil de sécurité avant de pouvoir conclure à son effet obligatoire.
Etant donné le caractère des pouvoirs découlant de l’article 25, il

convient de déterminer dans chaque cas si ces pouvoirs ont été en
fait exercés, compte tenu des termes de la résolution à interpréter,
des débats qui ont précédé son adoption, des dispositions de la
Charte invoquées et en général de tous les éléments qui pourraient
aider à préciser les conséquences juridiques de la résolution du

Conseil de sécurité.» (Conséquences juridiques pour les Etats de la
présence continue de l’Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest afri-
cain) nonobstant la résolution 276 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité,
avis consultatif, C.I.J. Recueil 1971 , p. 53, par. 114.)

118. Ces considérations à l’esprit, la Cour ne peut retenir l’argument
selon lequel la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité contiendrait
l’interdiction, liant les auteurs de la déclaration d’indépendance, de faire

une telle déclaration; pareille interdiction ne peut non plus être inférée du
texte de la résolution, lu dans son contexte et à la lumière de son objet et
de son but. Le libellé de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité
est, au mieux, ambigu à cet égard. L’objet et le but de la résolution
consistent, ainsi que cela a été exposé de manière détaillée (voir paragra-

phes 96 à 100), à mettre en place une administration intérimaire au
Kosovo, sans prendre aucune décision définitive quant aux questions
relatives au statut final. Il est précisé dans la résolution que les

«principales responsabilités de la présence internationale civile seront
les suivantes: ... [o]rganiser et superviser la mise en place d’institu-
tions provisoires pour une auto-administration autonome et démo-
cratique en attendant un règlement politique » (résolution, par. 11,

al. c); les italiques sont de la Cour).
L’expression «règlement politique», qui a souvent été reprise dans la pré-

sente procédure, ne change rien à cette conclusion. Premièrement, cette
référence s’inscrit dans le cadre d’une énumération des responsabilités
incombant à la présence civile internationale, à savoir le représentant spé-
cial du Secrétaire général pour le Kosovo et la MINUK, et à personne

d’autre. Deuxièmement, comme en témoignent les vues divergentes qui
ont été exposées devant la Cour sur ce point, l’expression «règlement poli-

52cludes that this part of Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) cannot be
construed to include a prohibition, addressed in particular to the authors

of the declaration of 17 February 2008, against declaring independence.

119. The Court accordingly finds that Security Council resolu-
tion 1244 (1999) did not bar the authors of the declaration of 17 Febru-

ary 2008 from issuing a declaration of independence from the Republic
of Serbia. Hence, the declaration of independence did not violate Security
Council resolution 1244 (1999).

*
120. The Court therefore turns to the question whether the declaration

of independence of 17 February 2008 has violated the Constitutional
Framework established under the auspices of UNMIK. Chapter 5 of the
Constitutional Framework determines the powers of the Provisional
Institutions of Self-Government of Kosovo. It was argued by a number
of States which participated in the proceedings before the Court that the

promulgation of a declaration of independence is an act outside the
powers of the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government as set out in
the Constitutional Framework.
121. The Court has already held, however (see paragraphs 102 to 109

above), that the declaration of independence of 17 February 2008 was
not issued by the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government, nor was it
an act intended to take effect, or actually taking effect, within the legal
order in which those Provisional Institutions operated. It follows that the
authors of the declaration of independence were not bound by the frame-

work of powers and responsibilities established to govern the conduct of
the Provisional Institutions of Self-Government. Accordingly, the Court
finds that the declaration of independence did not violate the Constitu-
tional Framework.

* * *

V. G ENERAL C ONCLUSION

122. The Court has concluded above that the adoption of the decla-
ration of independence of 17 February 2008 did not violate general
international law, Security Council resolution 1244 (1999) or the Constitu-
tional Framework. Consequently the adoption of that declaration did

not violate any applicable rule of international law.

* * *

123. For these reasons,

T HE COURT ,
(1) Unanimously,

53tique» peut s’interpréter de diverses manières. Selon la Cour, cette partie
de la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité ne peut donc pas être

interprétée comme comportant une interdiction de déclarer l’indépendance
applicable en particulier aux auteurs de la déclaration du 17 février 2008.
119. La Cour conclut dès lors que la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil
de sécurité ne faisait pas obstacle à ce que les auteurs de la déclaration

du 17 février 2008 proclament l’indépendance du Kosovo vis-à-vis de la
République de Serbie. Partant, la déclaration d’indépendance n’a pas
violé la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité.

*
120. La Cour en vient donc à la question de savoir si la déclaration

d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 a violé le cadre constitutionnel établi
sous les auspices de la MINUK. Le chapitre 5 du cadre constitutionnel
définit les pouvoirs des institutions provisoires d’administration auto-
nome du Kosovo. Plusieurs des Etats qui ont participé à la présente pro-
cédure ont soutenu que l’adoption d’une déclaration d’indépendance

était un acte qui excédait les pouvoirs de ces institutions tels que définis
dans le cadre constitutionnel.

121. Toutefois, la Cour a d’ores et déjà conclu (voir paragraphes 102 à

109 ci-dessus) que la déclaration d’indépendance du 17 février 2008
n’émanait pas des institutions provisoires d’administration autonome, et
qu’il ne s’agissait pas non plus d’un acte destiné à prendre effet, ou ayant
effectivement pris effet, dans le cadre de l’ordre juridique au sein duquel
celles-ci agissaient. Il s’ensuit que les auteurs de la déclaration d’indépen-

dance n’étaient pas liés par le cadre qui visait à régir, en définissant leurs
pouvoirs et responsabilités, la conduite des institutions provisoires
d’administration autonome. En conséquence, la Cour conclut que la
déclaration d’indépendance n’a pas violé le cadre constitutionnel.

* * *

V. C ONCLUSION GÉNÉRALE

122. La Cour a conclu ci-dessus que l’adoption de la déclaration
d’indépendance du 17 février 2008 n’a violé ni le droit international géné-
ral, ni la résolution 1244 (1999) du Conseil de sécurité, ni le cadre consti-
tutionnel. En conséquence, l’adoption de ladite déclaration n’a violé

aucune règle applicable du droit international.

* * *

123. Par ces motifs,

La C OUR ,
1) A l’unanimité,

53 Finds that it has jurisdiction to give the advisory opinion requested;

(2) By nine votes to five,

Decides to comply with the request for an advisory opinion;

IN FAVOUR: President Owada; Judges Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal, Simma,
Abraham, Sepúlveda-Amor, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood;

AGAINST: Vice-President Tomka; Judges Koroma, Keith, Bennouna, Skot-
nikov;

(3) By ten votes to four,

Is of the opinion that the declaration of independence of Kosovo
adopted on 17 February 2008 did not violate international law.

IN FAVOUR: President Owada; Judges Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal, Simma,
Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Green-
wood;
AGAINST: Vice-President Tomka; Judges Koroma, Bennouna, Skotnikov.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authoritative, at

the Peace Palace, The Hague, this twenty-second day of July, two thou-
sand and ten, in two copies, one of which will be placed in the archives of
the Court and the other transmitted to the Secretary-General of the

United Nations.

(Signed) President. (Signed) Hisashi O WADA ,

President.

(Signed) Philippe C OUVREUR ,

Registrar.

Vice-President TOMKA appends a declaration to the Advisory Opinion
of the Court; Judge K OROMA appends a dissenting opinion to the Advi-
sory Opinion of the Court; Judge S IMMA appends a declaration to the
Advisory Opinion of the Court; Judges K EITH and S EPÚLVEDA -AMOR

append separate opinions to the Advisory Opinion of the Court;
Judges B ENNOUNA and S KOTNIKOV append dissenting opinions to the
Advisory Opinion of the Court; Judges C ANÇADO T RINDADE and Y USUF

append separate opinions to the Advisory Opinion of the Court.

(Initialled) H.O.

(Initialled) Ph.C.

54 Dit qu’elle est compétente pour répondre à la demande d’avis consultatif;

2) Par neuf voix contre cinq,

Décide de donner suite à la demande d’avis consultatif;

POUR : M. Owada, président ; MM. Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal, Simma,
Abraham, Sepúlveda-Amor, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Greenwood, juges;

CONTRE : M. Tomka, vice-président ; MM. Koroma, Keith, Bennouna, Skot-
nikov, juges;

3) Par dix voix contre quatre,

Est d’avis que la déclaration d’indépendance du Kosovo adoptée le
17 février 2008 n’a pas violé le droit international.

POUR : M. Owada, président ; MM. Al-Khasawneh, Buergenthal, Simma,
Abraham, Keith, Sepúlveda-Amor, Cançado Trindade, Yusuf, Green-
wood, juges;
CONTRE : M. Tomka, vice-président ; MM. Koroma, Bennouna, Skotnikov,

juges.

Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglais faisant foi, au Palais de la

Paix, à La Haye, le vingt-deux juillet deux mille dix, en deux exemplaires,
dont l’un restera déposé aux archives de la Cour et l’autre sera transmis
au Secrétaire général de l’Organisation des Nations Unies.

Le président,

(Signé) Hisashi O WADA .

Le greffier,

(Signé) Philippe C OUVREUR .

M. le juge TOMKA , vice-président, joint une déclaration à l’avis consul-
tatif; M. le juge OROMA joint à l’avis consultatif l’exposé de son opinion
dissidente; M. le juge SIMMA joint une déclaration à l’avis consultatif;
MM. les juges K EITH et SEPÚLVEDA -A MOR joignent à l’avis consultatif les

exposés de leur opinion individuelle; MM. les juges BENNOUNA et SKOT -
NIKOV joignent à l’avis consultatif les exposés de leur opinion dissidente;
MM. les juges C ANÇADO TRINDADE et YUSUF joignent à l’avis consultatif

les exposés de leur opinion individuelle.

(Paraphé) H.O.

(Paraphé) Ph.C.

54

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Advisory Opinion of 22 July 2010

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