Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996

Document Number
093-19960708-ADV-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRETS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

LICÉITÉ DE L'UTILISATION
DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES PAR UN ÉTAT
DANS UN CONFLIT ARMÉ

AVIS CONSULTATIF DU 8 JUILLET 1996

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

LEGALITY OF THE USE BY A STATE
OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
IN ARMED CONFLICT

ADVISORY OPINION OF 8 JULY 1996 Mode officiel de citation:

Licéitéde l'utilisation des armes nucléairespar un Etat
dans un conflit armé,avisonsultut$
C.I.J. Recueil 1996, p. 66

Officia1citatio:

Legalitin Armed ConJEict,Advisory Opinion,Weapons
I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 66

No de vente:
ISSN 0074-4441 Sales number 678
ISBN 92-1-070742-7 INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 1996 1996
8 July
General List
8 July 1996 No. 93

LEGALITY OF THE USE BY A STASE

OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

IN ARMED CONFLICT

Jurisdiction of the Court to give the advisoryopinionrequeste- Article 65,
paragraplz1, of the Statute and Article 96,paragraph 2, oj the Chart-r Spe-
cialized agency authorized to request opinions under the Charter - "Legal
question" - Political aspects oj the question posed- Motives said to have
inspired the request and political implicationsthat the opinion might hav-
Question arising "ivithinthe scope of [the] activities" of the requesting Organi-
zation - Inteïpretation of the constitution of the Organizati-n Article 2 of
the WorldHealth 01,ganizationCorzstitutio- Absence of sufficient connection
between thefunctions vested in the Organization and the question posed -
"Principle of speciality- Relationship between the UnitedNations and the

specialized agencies- Issue of World Health Organization practicein thejeld
of nuclear weapons - Resolution duly adoptedfrom a procedural point of vieiv
and question ivhetherthat resolution has been adoptedntra vires- Resolution
of theUnitedNations GeneralAssembly "welcoming" tlzerequestfor an opinion
submitted by the World Healtlz Organization - Conclusion.

ADVISORY OPINION

Present : President BEDJAOU ; I Vice-President SCHWEB ELJudges ODA,
GUILLAUME S,HAHABUDDEE WNE,ERAMANTRR Y, NJEVAH , ERCZEGH,
SHI, FLEISCHHAUER K,OROMA, VERESHCHETIN F, RRARIBRAVO,
HIGGINSR ; egistrar VALENCIA-OSPINA.

1. By a letter dated 27 August 1993, filed in the Registry on 3 September
1993, the Director-General of the World Health Organization (hereinafter
called "the WHO") officially communicated to the Registrar a decision taken
by the World Health Assembly to submit a question to the Court for an advi-sory opinion. The question is set forth in resolution WHA46.40 adopted by the
Assembly on 14May 1993.That resolution, certified copies of the English and
French texts of which were enclosed with the said letter, reads as follows:

"The Forty-sixth World Health Assembly,
Bearing in mind the principles laid down in the WHO Constitution;

Noting the report of the Director-General on health and environmental
effects of nuclear weapons ';

Recalling resolutions WHA34.38, WHA36.28 and WHA40.24 on the
effects of nuclear war on health and health services;
Recognizing that it has been established that no health service in the
world can alleviate in any significantway a situation resulting from the use
of even one single nuclear weapon';
Recalling resolutions WHA42.26 on WHO'Scontribution to the inter-
national efforts towards sustainable development and WHA45.31 which
draws attention to the effects on health of environmental degradation and
recognizing the short- and long-term environmental consequences of the

use of nuclear weapons that would affect human health for generations;

Recalling that primary prevention is the only appropriate means to deal
with the health and environmental effects of the use of nuclear weapons2;

Noting the concern of the world health community about the continued
threat to health and the environment from nuclear weapons;

Mindful of the role of WHO as defined in its Constitution to act as
the directing and coordinating authority on international health work
(Article 2 (a)); to propose conventions, agreements and regulations
(Article2 (k)) ;to report on administrative and social techniques affecting
public health from preventive and curative points of view (Article 2 (p));
and to take al1necessary action to attain the objectivesof the Organization
(Article 2 (v));

Realizing that primary prevention of the health hazards of nuclear
weapons requires clarity about the status in international law of their use,
and that over the last 48 years marked differences of opinion have been
expressed by Member States about the lawfulness of the use of nuclear
;
weapons

1. Decides, in accordance with Article 96 (2) of the Charter of the
United Nations, Article 76 of the Constitution of the World Health
Organization and Article X of the Agreement between the United Nations
and the World Health Organization approved by the General Assembly of
the United Nations on 15 November 1947 in its resolution 124 (II), to

*See Effects of Nuclear War on Health and Health Services (2nd ed.), Geneva,
WHO, 1987. request the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on
the following question :

'In view of the health and environmental effects, would the use of
nuclear weapons by a State in war or other armed conflict be a breach of
its obligations under international law including the WHO Constitu-
tion?'
2. Requests the Director-General to transmit this resolution to the Inter-
national Court of Justice, accompanied by al1documents likely to throw
light upon the question, in accordance with Article 65 of the Statute
of the Court."

2. Pursuant to Article 65, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Director-General
of the WHO communicated to the Court a dossier of documents likelyto throw
light upon the question; the dossier reached the Registry in several instalments.

3. By letters dated 14and 20 September 1993,the Deputy-Registrar, pursu-
ant to Article 66, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court, gave notice of the
request for an advisory opinion to al1States entitled to appear before the Court.
4. By an Order dated 13 September 1993the Court decided that the WHO
and the member States of that Organization entitled to appear before the Court
were likely to be able to furnish information on the question, in accordance
with Article 66, paragraph 2, of the Statute; and, by the same Order, the Court

fixed 10 June 1994 as the time-limit for the submission to it of written state-
ments on the question. The special and direct communication provided for in
Article 66, paragraph 2. of the Statute was included in the aforementioned let-
ters of 14 and 20 September 1993addressed to the States concerned. A similar
communication was transmitted to the WHO by the Deputy-Registrar on
14 September 1993.
5. By an Order dated 20 June 1994, the President of the Court, upon the
request of several States, extended to 20 September 1994the time-limit for the
submission of written statements. By the same Order, the President fixed
20 June 1995 as the time-limit within which States and organizations having
presented written statements might submit written comments on the other writ-
teil statements, in accordance with Article 66, paragraph 4, of the Statute.

6. Written statements were filed by the following States: Australia, Azerbai-
jan, Colombia, Costa Rica, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Finland,

France, Germany, India, Ireland, Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, Japan,
Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Malaysia, Mexico, Nauru, Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Moldova, Russian Fed-
eration, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Sweden,
Uganda, Ukraine, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
and United States of America. In addition, written comments on those written
statements were submitted by the following States: Costa Rica, France, India,
Malaysia, Nauru, Russian Federation, Solomon Islands, United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and United States of America. Upon
receipt ofthose statements and comments, the Registrar communicated the text
to al1States having taken part in the written proceedings.
7. The Court decided to hold public sittings, opening on 30 October 1995,at
which oral statements might be submitted to the Court by any State or organi-
zation which had been considered likely to be able to furnish information on
the question before the Court. By letters dated 23 June 1995, the Registrar requested the WHO and its member States entitled to appear before the Court
to inform him whether they intended to take part in the oral proceedings; it

was indicated, in those letters, that the Court had decided to hear, during the
same public sittings, oral statements relating to the request for an advisory
opinion from the WHO as wellas oral statements concerning the request for an
advisory opinion meanwhile laid before the Court by the General Assembly of
the United Nations on the question of the Legality of the Threat or Use of
Nuclear Weapons, on the understanding that the WHO would be entitled to
speak only in regard to the request it had itself submitted; and it was further
specifiedtherein that the participants in the oral proceedings which had not
taken part in the written proceedings would receive the text of the statements
and comments produced in the course of the latter.
8. Pursuant to Article 106of the Rules of Court, the Court decided to make

the written statements and comments submitted to the Court accessible to the
public, with effect from the opening of the oral proceedings.
9. In the course of public sittings held from 30 October 1995to 15Novem-
ber 1995,the Court heard oral statements in the following order by:

for the WHO: Mr. Claude-Henri Vignes, Legal Counsel;
for the Commoni.vealth Mr. Gavan Griffith, Q.C., Solicitor-General of Aus-
of Australia : tralia, Counsel,
The Honourable Gareth Evans, Q.C., Senator,
Minister for Foreign Affairs, Counsel;

jor the Arnb Republic Mr. Georges Abi-Saab, Professor of International
of E~YP f: Law, Graduate Institute of International
Studies, Geneva, Member of the Institute of
International Law;

for the French Republic: Mr.Marc Perrin de Brichambaut, Director of Legal
Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor of International Law,
University of Paris X and Institute of Political
Studies, Paris;

for the Federal Republic Mr. Hartmut Hillgenberg, Director-General of
of Gevmany : Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs;

for Indonesia : H.E. Mr. Johannes Berchmans Soedarmanto
Kadarisman, Ambassador of Indonesia to the

Netherlands ;
for Mexico: H.E. Mr. Sergio Gonzalez Galvez, Ambassador,
Under-Secretary of Foreign Relations;

for the Islarnic H.E. Mr. Mohammad J. Zarif, Deputy Minister,
Republic of Ivan : Legai and International Affairs, Ministry of For-
eign Affairs;
for Italy : Mr. Umberto Leanza, Professor of International

Law at the Faculty of Law at the University of
Rome "Tor Vergata", Head of the Diplomatic
Legal Serviceat the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ;for Japan H.E. Mr. Takekazu Kawamura, Ambassador,
Director General for Arms Control and Scien-
tific Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

Mr. Takashi Hiraoka, Mayor of Hiroshima,
Mr. Iccho Itoh, Mayor of Nagasaki;

jov Malaysia H.E. Mr. Tan Sri Razali Ismail, Ambassador, Per-
manent Representative of Malaysia to the United
Nations,
Dato' Mohtar Abdullah, Attorney-General;
The Honourable Paul East, Q.C., Attorney-
for New Zealand:
General of New Zealand,
Mr. Allan Bracegirdle, Deputy Director of Legal
Division of the New Zealand Ministry of For-
eign Affairs and Trade;

fol- the Philippines: H.E. Mr. Rodolfo S. Sanchez, Ambassador of the

Philippines to the Netherlands,
Professor Merlin M. Magallona, Dean, College of
Law, University of the Philippines;

fol- the Russian Mr. A. G. Khodakov, Director, Legal Department,

Fedel-ation: Ministry of Foreign Affairs;
for Samoa: H.E. Mr. Neroni Slade, Ambassador and Perma-
nent Representative of Samoa to the United
Nations,
Miss Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Assistant
Professor, Graduate Institute of International
Studies, Geneva,

Mr. Roger S. Clark, Distinguished Professor of
Law, Rutgers University School of Law, Cam-
den, New Jersey;
for the Marshall Islands: The Honourable Theodore G. Kronmiller, Legal
Counsel, Embassy of the Marshall Islands to the
United States of America,

Mrs. Lijon Eknilang, Council Member, Rongelap
Atoll Local Government;
for Solomon Islands: The Honourable Victor Ngele, Minister of Police
and National Security,
Mr. Jean Salmon, Professor of Law, Université

libre de Bruxelles,
Mr. Eric David, Professor of Law, Université libre
de Bruxelles,
Mr. Philippe Sands, Lecturer in Law, School of
Oriental and African Studies, London Univer-
sity, and Legal Director, Foundation for Inter-
national Environmental Law and Development, Mr. James Crawford, WhewellProfessor of Inter-
national Law, University of Cambridge;

for Costa Rica: Mr. Carlos Vargas-Pizarro, Legal Counsel and
SpecialEnvoy of the Government of Costa Rica;

for the United Kingdorn The Rt. Honourable SirNicholas Lyell,Q.C.,M.P.,
of Great Britain and Her Majesty'sAttorney-General;
Northern Irelarzd:
for the United States Mr. Conrad K. Harper, Legal Adviser, United
of America: States Department of State,
Mr. Michael J. Matheson, Principal Deputy Legal

Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. John H. McNeill, Senior Deputy General
Counsel, United States Department of Defense;
for Zimbabwe: Mr. Jonathan Wutawunashe, Chargé d'affairesai.,
Embassy of the Republic of Zimbabwe in the
Netherlands.

Questionswereput by Members of the Court to particular participants in the
oral proceedings, which repliedin writing, as requested, within the prescribed
time-limits; the Court having decided that the other participants could also
reply to those questions on the same terms, severalof them did so. Other ques-
tions put by Members of the Court wereaddressed, more generally,to any par-
ticipant in the oral proceedings;everalofthem repliedin writing, as requested,
within the prescribed time-limits.

10. TheCourt has the authority to give advisory opinions by virtue of
Article 65 of its Statute, paragraph 1of which reads as follows:

"The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at
the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance
with the Charter of the United Nations to make such a request."

It is also stated, in Article96, paragraph 2, of the Charter that the

"specialized agencies, which may at any time be so authorized by the

General Assembly, may also request advisory opinions of the Court
on legal questions arising within the scope of their activities".

Consequently, three conditions must be satisfied inorder to found the
jurisdiction of the Court when a request for an advisory opinion is sub-
mitted to it by a specialized agency: the agency requesting the opinion
must be duly authorized, under the Charter, to request opinions from theCourt; the opinion requested must be on a legal question; and this ques-
tion must be one arising within the scope of the activities of the request-
ing agency (cf. Application for Review of Judgement No. 273 of the
UnitedNations Administrative Tribunal,Advisovy Opinion,I.C.J. Reports
1982, pp. 333-334).
11. Where the WHO is concerned, the above-mentioned texts are
reflected in two other provisions, to which World Health Assembly reso-
lution WHA46.40 expressly refers in paragraph 1 of its operative part.
These are, on the one hand, Article 76 of that Organization's Constitu-
tion,under which:

"Upon authorization by the General Assembly of the United
Nations or upon authorization in accordance with any agreement
between the Organization and the United Nations, the Organization
may request the International Court of Justice for an advisory
opinion on any legal question arising within the competence of the
Organization."

And on the other hand, paragraph 2 of Article X of the Agreement of
10 July 1948between the United Nations and the WHO, under which:

"The General Assembly authorizes the World Health Organiza-
tion to request advisory opinions of the International Court of Jus-
tice on legal questions arising within the scope of its competence
other than questions concerning the mutual relationships of the
Organization and the United Nations or other specialized agencies."

This agreement was approved by the United Nations General Assembly
on 15 November 1947 (resolution 124 (II)) and by the World Health
Assembly on 10July 1948(resolution [WHAl. 1021).
12. There is thus no doubt that the WHO has been duly authorized, in
accordance with Article 96,paragraph 2, of the Charter, to request advi-
sory opinions of the Court. The firstcondition which must be met in order
to found the competence of the Court in this case is thus fulfilled. More-
over, this point has not been disputed; and the Court has in the past
agreed to deal with a request for an advisory opinion submitted by the
WHO (see Zntevpretationof tlzeAgreement of 25 Mavch 1951between the
WHO and Egypt, Advisovy Opinion,I.C.J. Repovts 1980, pp. 73 et seq.).

13. However, during both the written and oral proceedings, some
States have disputed whether the other conditions necessary for theuris-
diction of the Court have been met in the present case. It has been con-
tended that the question before the Court is an essentially political one,and also that it goes beyond the scope of the WHO'Sproper activities,
which would in limine have deprived the Organization itself of any com-
et en ceto seisethe Court of it.
14. Further, various arguments have been put forward for the purpose
of persuading the Court to use the discretionary power it possessesunder
Article 65, paragraph 1, of the Statute, to decline to give the opinion
sought. The Court can however only exercisethis discretionary power if
it has first established that it has jurisdiction in the case in question; if the
Court lacksjurisdiction, the question of exercisingits discretionary power
does not arise.

15. The Court must therefore first satisfy itself that the advisory
opinion requested does indeed relate to a "legal question" within the
meaning of its Statute and the United Nations Charter.
The Court has already had occasion to indicate that questions

"framed in terms of law and rais[ing]problems of international law
. . are by their very nature susceptible of a reply based on law . ..
[and] appear . . .to be questions of a legal character" (Western
Sahara, Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports 1975, p. 18, para. 15).

16. The question put to the Court by the World Health Assembly does
in fact constitute a legal question, as the Court is requested to rule on
whether,

"in view of the health and environmental effects, . . .the use of
nuclear weapons by a State in war or otherarmed conflict [would]be
a breach of its obligations under international law including the
WHO Constitution".

To do this, the Court must identify the obligations of States under the

rules of law invoked, and assess whether the behaviour in question con-
forms to those obligations, thus giving an answer to the question posed
based on law.
The fact that this question also has political aspects, as, in the nature
of things, is the case with so many questions which arise in international
life,does not sufficeto deprive it of its character as a "legal question" and
to "deprive the Court of a competence expressly conferred on it by its
Statute" (Application for Review of Judgement No. 158 of the United
Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1973,
p. 172,para. 14).Whatever its political aspects, the Court cannot refuse
to admit the legal character of a question which invitesit to discharge an
essentiallyjudicial task, namely, an assessment of the legality of the pos-
sibleconduct of States with regard to the obligations imposed upon themby international law (cf. Conditions of Admission of a State to Member-
ship in the United Nations (Article 4 of Charter), Advisory Opinion,
1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948, pp. 61-62; Competence of the General
Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950, pp. 6-7; Certain Expenses of the United
Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 155).
Furthermore, as the Court said in the Opinion it gave in 1980concern-

ing the Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the
WHO and Egypt :
"Indeed, in situations in which political considerations are promi-
nent it may be particularly necessary for an international organiza-

tion to obtain an advisory opinion from the Court as to the legal
principles applicable with respect to the matter under debate, espe-
cially when these may include the interpretation of its constitution."
(1.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 87, para. 33.)
17. The Court also finds that the political nature of the motives which

may be said to have inspired the request and the political implications
that the opinion given might have are of no relevance in the establish-
ment of its jurisdiction to give such an opinion.

18. TheCourt willnow seekto determine whether the advisory opinion
requested by the WHO relates to a question which arises "within the
scope of [the] activities" of that Organization, in accordance with
Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter.
The Court notes that this third condition to which its advisory func-
tion is subject is expressed in slightly different terms in Article X, para-
graph 2, of the Agreement of 10 July 1948 - which refers to questions
arising within the scope of the WHO'S"competence" - and in Article 76
of the WHO Constitution - which refers to questions arising "within the
competence" of the Organization. However, it considers that, for the pur-
poses of this case, no point of significance turns on the different formu-

lations.
19. In order to delineate the field of activity or the area of competence
of an international organization, one must refer to the relevant rules of
the organization and, in the first place, to its constitution. From a forma1
standpoint, the constituent instruments of international organizations are
multilateral treaties, to which the well-established rules of treaty interpre-
tation apply. As the Court has said with respect to the Charter:

"On the previous occasions when the Court has had to interpret
the Charter of the United Nations, it has followed the principles and
rules applicable in general to the interpretation of treaties, since it has recognized that the Charter is a multilateral treaty, albeit a
treaty having certain special characteristics." (Certain Expenses of
the United Nations (Article 17,paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advi-
sory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 157.)
But the constituent instruments of international organizations are also

treaties of a particular type; their object is to create new subjects of law
endowed with a certain autonomy, to which the parties entrust the task
of realizing common goals. Such treaties can raise specificproblems of
interpretation owing, inter alia, to their character which is conventional
and at the same time institutional; the very nature of the organization
created, the objectives which have been assigned to it by its founders, the
imperatives associated with the effectiveperformance of its functions, as
wellas its own practice, are al1elements which may deserve special atten-
tion when the time comes to interpret these constituent treaties.
According to the customary rule of interpretation as expressed in
Article 31 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the
terms of a treaty must be interpreted "in their context and in the light
of its object and purpose" and there shall be

"taken into account, together with the context:
.............................

(b) any subsequent practice in the application of the treaty which
establishes the agreement of the parties regarding itsinterpreta-
tion".
The Court has had occasion to apply this rule of interpretation several
times (see Arbitral Award of 31 July 1989 (Guinea-Bissau v. Senegal),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1991, pp. 69-70, para. 48; Land, Island and
Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua interven-
ing), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 582-583,para. 373, and p. 586,
para. 380; Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, pp. 21-22, para. 41; Maritime Delimitation
and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bah-
rain), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995,
p. 18,para. 33); it will also apply it in this case for the purpose of deter-
mining whether, according to the WHO Constitution, the question to
which it has been asked to reply arises "within the scope of [the] activi-
ties" of that Organization.

20. The WHO Constitution was adopted and opened for signature on
22 July 1946; it entered into force on 7 April 1948and was amended in
1960, 1975,1977, 1984and 1994.
The functions attributed to the Organization are listed in 22 subpara-
graphs (subparagraphs (a) to (v)) in Article 2 of its Constitution. None
of these subparagraphs expressly refers to the legality of any activityhazardous to health; and none of the functions of the WHO is dependent
upon the legality of the situations upon which it must act. Moreover, it is
stated in the introductory sentence of Article 2 that the Organization dis-
charges its functions "in order to achieve its objective". The objective of
the Organization is defined in Article 1 as being "the attainment by al1
peoples of the highest possible level of health". As for the Preamble to
the Constitution, it sets out various principles which the States parties
"declare, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations, . . .[to
bel basic to the happiness, harmonious relations and security of al1
peoples" :hence, it is stated therein, inter alia, that "[tlhe enjoyment of
the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights
of every human being" and that "[tlhe health of al1peoples is fundamen-
ta1to the attainment of peace and security"; it is further indicated, at the
end of the Preamble that,

"for the purpose of CO-operationamong themselves and with others
to promote and protect the health of al1peoples, the Contracting
Parties . . establish . ..the .. .Organization . . .as a specialized
agency within the terms of Article 57 of the Charter of the United
Nations".

21. Interpreted in accordance with their ordinary meaning, in their
context and in the light of the object and purpose of the WHO Constitu-
tion, as well as of the practice followed by the Organization, the provi-
sions of its Article 2 may be read as authorizingthe Organization to deal
with the effects on health of the use of nuclear weapons, or of any other
hazardous activity, and to take preventive measures aimed at protecting
the health of populations in the event of such weapons being used or such
activities engaged in.

The question put to the Court in the present case relates, however, not
to the effects of the use of nuclear weapons on health, but to the legality
of the use of such weapons in view of theiv health and environmental
effects. Whatever those effects might be, the competence of the WHO to
deal with them is not dependent on the legality of the acts that caused
them. Accordingly, it does not seem to the Court that the provisions of
Article 2 of the WHO Constitution, interpreted in accordance with the
criteria referred to above, can be understood as conferring upon the
Organization a competence to address the legality of the use of nuclear
weapons, and thus in turn a competence to ask the Court about that.
22. World Health Assemblyresolution WHA46.40, by which the Court
has been seised of this request for an opinion, expressly refers, in its Pre-
amble, to the functions indicated under subparagraphs (a), (k), (p) and
(v) of Article 2 under consideration. These functions are defined as:

"(a) to act as the directing and CO-ordinatingauthority on interna-
tional health work; (k) to propose conventions, agreements and regulations, and make
recommendations with respect to international health matters
and to perform such duties as may be assigned thereby to the
Organization and are consistent with its objective;
.............................
(p) to study and report on, in CO-operationwith other specialized
agencies where necessary,administrative and social techniques

affecting public health and medical care from preventive and
curative points of view, including hospital services and social
security ;
............................
tandl
(v) generally to take al1necessary action to attain the objective of
the Organization."

In the view of the Court, none of these functions has a sufficientconnec-
tion with the question before it for that question to be capable of
being considered as arising "within the scope of [the] activities" of the
WHO. The causes of the deterioration of human health are numerous
and varied; and the legal or illegal character of these causes is essen-
tially immaterial to the measures which the WHO must in any case
take in an attempt to remedy their effects. In particular, the legality or
illegality of the use of nuclear weapons in no way determines the spe-
cificmeasures, regarding health or otherwise (studies, plans, procedures,

etc.), which could be necessary in order to seek to prevent or cure some
of their effects. Whether nuclear weapons are used legally or illegally,
their effects on health would be the same. Similarly, while it is probable
that the use of nuclear weapons might seriously prejudice the WHO's
material capability to deliver al1the necessary services insuch an event-
uality, for example, by making the affected areas inaccessible, this does
not raise an issue falling within the scope of the Organization's activities
within the meaning of Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter. The ref-
erence in the question put to the Court to the health and environmental
effects, which according to the WHO the use of a nuclear weapon will
always occasion, does not make the question one that falls within the
WHO's functions.

23. However, in its Preamble, resolution WHA46.40 refers to "pri-

mary prevention" in the following terms :
"Recalling that primary prevention is the only appropriate means
to deal with the health and environmental effects of the use of
nuclear weapons2;

See Effects of Nucbur War on Heultlz und Heultlz Services (2nd ed.), Geneva,
WHO, 1987. Realizing that primary prevention of the health hazards of nuclear
weapons requires clarity about the status in international law of
their use, and that over the last 48 years marked differences of
opinion have been expressed byMember States about the lawfulness
of the use of nuclear weapons;

The document entitled Effects of Nuclear War on Health and Health
Services, to which the Preamble refers, is a report prepared in 1987by the
Management Group created by the Director-General of the WHO in
Dursuance of World Health Assemblv resolution WHA36.28 :this reDort
updates another report on the same topic, which had been prepared in
1983 by an international committee of experts in medical sciences and
public health, and whose conclusions had been approved by the Assem-
bly in its above-mentioned resolution. As several States have observed

during the present proceedings, the Management Group does indeed
emphasize in its 1987report that "the only approach to the treatment of
health effects of nuclear warfare is primary prevention, that is, the pre-
vention of nuclear war" (Summary, p. 5, para. 7). However, the Group
states that "it is not for [it] to outline the political steps by which this
threat can be removed or the preventive measures to be implemented"
(ibid., para. 8); and the Group concludes:

"However, WHO can make important contributions to this pro-
cess by systematically distributing information on the health conse-
quences of nuclear warfare and by expanding and intensifying inter-
national cooperation in the field of health."(Ibid., para. 9.)

24. The WHO could only be competent to take those actions of "pri-

mary prevention" which fa11within the functions of the Organization as
defined in Article 2 of its Constitution. In consequence, the references to
this type of prevention which are made in the Preamble to resolution
WHA46.40 and the link there suggested with the question of the legality
of the use of nuclear weapons do not affect the conclusions reached by
the Court in paragraph 22 above.
25. The Court need hardly point out that international organizations
are subjects of international law which do not, unlike States, possess a
general competence. International organizations are governed by the
"principle of speciality", that is to say, they are invested by the States
which create them with powers, the limits of which are a function of the
common interests whose promotion those States entrust to them. The
Permanent Court of International Justice referred to this basic principle
in the following terms:

"As the European Commission is not a State, but an international
institution with a special purpose, it only has the functions bestowed upon it by the Definitive Statute with a viewto the fulfilment of that
purpose, but it has power to exercise these functions to their full
extent, in so far as theStatute does not impose restrictions upon it."
(Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube, Advisory
Opinion, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 14, p. 64.)

The powers conferred on international organizations are normally the
subject of an express statement in their constituent instruments. Never-
theless, the necessities of international life may point to the need for
organizations, in order to achieve their objectives, to possess subsidiary
powers which are not expressly provided for in the basic instruments
which govern their activities. It is generally accepted that international
organizations can exercise such powers, known as "implied" powers. As
far as the United Nations is concerned, the Court has expressed itself in
the following terms in this respect:

"Under international law, the Organization must be deemed to
have those powers which, though not expressly provided in the
Charter, are conferred upon it by necessary implication as being
essential to the performance of its duties. This principle of law was
applied by the Permanent Court of International Justice to the Inter-
national Labour Organization in its Advisory Opinion No. 13
of July 23rd, 1926(Series B, No. 13,p. 18),and must be applied to
the United Nations." (Reparationfor Injuries Suffered in the Service

of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1949,
pp. 182-183; cf. Effect of Awavds of Compensation Made by the
United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C. J.
Reports 1954, p. 57.)
In the opinion of the Court, to ascribe to the WHO the competence to
address the legality of the use of nuclear weapons - even in view of their
health and environmental effects - would be tantamount to disregarding

the principle of speciality; for such competence could not be deemed a
necessary implication of the Constitution of the Organization in the light
of the purposes assigned to it by its member States.

26. The World Health Organization is, moreover, an international
organization of a particular kind. As indicated in the Preamble and con-
firmed by Article 69 of its Constitution, "the Organization shall be
brought into relation with the United Nations as one of the specialized
agencies referred to in Article 57 of the Charter of the United Nations".
Article 57 of the Charter defines "specialized agencies" as follows:

"1. The various specialized agencies, established by intergovern-
mental agreement and having wide international responsibilities, as
defined in their basic instruments, in economic, social, cultural, edu-
cational, health, and related fields, shall be brought into relationship
with the United Nations in accordance with the provisions of
Article 63. 2. Such agencies thus brought into relationship with the United
Nations are hereinafter referred to as 'specialized agencies'."
Article 58 of the Charter reads:

"The Organization shall make recommendations for the co-ordi-
nation of the policies and activities of the specialized agencies."
Article 63 of the Charter then provides:

"1. The Economic and Social Council may enter into agreements
with any of the agencies referred to in Article 57, defining the terms
on which the agency concerned shall be brought into relationship
with the United Nations. Such agreements shall be subject to
approval by the General Assembly.
2. It rnay CO-ordinatethe activities of the specialized agencies
through consultation with and recommendations to such agencies
and through recommendations to the General Assembly and to the
Members of the United Nations."

As these provisions demonstrate, the Charter of the United Nations laid
the basis of a "system" designedto organize international CO-operationin
a coherent fashion by bringing the United Nations, invested with powers
of general scope,into relationship with various autonomous and comple-
mentary organizations, invested with sectorial powers. The exercise of
these powers by the organizations belonging to the "United Nations sys-
tem" is CO-ordinated,notably, by the relationship agreements concluded
between the United Nations and each of the specialized agencies. In the
case of the WHO, the agreement of 10 July 1948 between the United
Nations and that Organization actually refers to the WHO Constitution
in the following terms in Article 1:

"The United Nations recognizes the World Health Organization
as the specialized agency responsible for taking such action as may
be appropriate under its Constitution for the accomplishment of the
objectives setforth therein."
It follows from the various instruments mentioned above that the
WHO Constitution can only be interpreted, as far as the powers con-

ferred upon that Organization are concerned, by taking due account not
only of the general principle of speciality, but also of the logic of the
overall systemcontemplated by the Charter. If, according to the rules on
which that system is based, the WHO has, by virtue of Article 57 of the
Charter, "wide international responsibilities", those responsibilities are
necessarilyrestricted to the sphere of public "health" and cannot encroach
on the responsibilities of other parts of the United Nations system. And
there is no doubt that questions concerning the use of force, the regula-
tion of armaments and disarmament are within the competence of the
United Nations and lie outside that of the specialized agencies. Besides,
any other conclusion would render virtually meaningless the notion of a
specialized agency; it is difficult to imagine what other meaning thatnotion could have if such an organization need only show that the use of
certain weapons could affect its objectives inorder to be empowered to
concern itself with the legality of such use. It is therefore difficult to
maintain that, by authorizing various specialized agencies to request
opinions from the Court under Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter,
the General Assembly intended to allow them to seisethe Court of ques-
tions belonging within the competence of the United Nations.

For al1these reasons, the Court considers that the question raised in
the request for an advisory opinion submitted to it by the WHO does not
arise "within the scope of [the]activities" of that Organization as defined
by its Constitution.

27. A consideration of the practice of the WHO bears out these con-
clusions.None of the reports and resolutions referred to in the Preamble

to World Health Assembly resolution WHA46.40 is in the nature of a
practice of the WHO in regard to the legality of the threat or use of
nuclear weapons. The Report of the Director-General (doc. A46/30),
referred to in the third paragraph of the Preamble, the aforementioned
resolutions WHA34.38 and WHA36.28, as wellas resolution WHA40.24,
al1of which are referred to in the fourth paragraph, as well as the above-
mentioned report of the Management Group of 1987to which reference
is made in the fifth and seventh paragraphs, deal exclusively, in the case
of the first, with the health and environmental effects of nuclear weap-
ons, and in the case of the remainder, with the effects of nuclear weapons
on health and health services. As regards resolutions WHA42.26 and
WHA45.31, referred to in the sixth paragraph of the Preamble to resolu-
tion WHA46.40, the first concerns the WHO'Scontribution to interna-
tional efforts towards sustainable development and the second deals with
the effectson health of environmental degradation. None of these reports
and resolutions deals with the legality of the use of nuclear weapons.
Resolution WHA46.40 itself, adopted, not without opposition,as soon
as the question of the legality of the use of nuclear weapons was raised at

the WHO, could not be taken to express or to amount on its own to a
practice establishing an agreement between the members of the Organiza-
tion to interpret its Constitution as empowering it to address the question
of the legality of the use of nuclear weapons.

Nowhere else does the Court find any practice of this kind. In particu-
lar, such a practice cannot be inferred from isolated passages of certain
resolutions of the World Health Assembly cited during the present pro-
ceedings, such as resolution WHA15.51 on the role of the physician in
the preservation and development of peace, resolution WHA22.58 con-
cerning CO-operation between the WHO and the United Nations in
regard to chemical and bacteriological weapons and the effects of theirpossible use, and resolution WHA42.24 concerning the embargo placed
on medical supplies for political reasons and restrictions on their move-
ment. TheCourt has also noted that the WHO regularly takes account of
various rules of international law in the exercise of its functions; that it
participates in certain activities undertaken in the legal sphere at the
international level - for example, for the purpose of drawing up an
international code of practice on transboundary movements of radio-

active waste; and that it participates in certain international conferences
for the progressive development and codification of international law.
That the WHO, as a subject of international law, should be led to apply
the rules of international law or concern itself with their development is
in no way surprising; but it does not follow that it has received a man-
date, beyond the terms of its Constitution, itself to address the legality
or illegality of the use of weaponry in hostilities.

28. It remains to be considered whether the insertion of the words
"including the WHO Constitution" in the question put to the Court
(which essentially seeks an opinion on the legality of the use of nuclear

weapons in general) could allow it to offer an opinion on the legality of
the use of nuclear weapons by reference to the passage in the question
concerning the WHO Constitution. The Court must answer in the nega-
tive. Indeed, the WHO is not empowered to seek an opinion on the inter-
pretation of its Constitution in relation to mattersoutside the scope of its
functions.

29. Other arguments have nevertheless been put forward in the pro-
ceedings to found the jurisdiction of the Court in the present case.
It has thus been argued that World Health Assembly resolution
WHA46.40, having been adopted by the requisite majority, "must be pre-
sumed to have been validly adopted" (cf. Legal Consequeneesfor States

of the Continued Presence of South Afvica in Namibia (South West
Afiica) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advi-
sory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 22, para. 20). The Court would
observe in this respect that the question whether a resolution has been
duly adopted from a procedural point of view and the question whether
that resolution has been adopted intra vires are two separate issues. The
mere fact that a majority of States, in voting on a resolution, have com-
plied with al1the relevant rules of form cannot in itself sufficeto remedy
any fundamental defects, such as acting ultra vires,with which the resolu-
tion might be afflicted.
As the Court has stated, "each organ must, in the first place at least,
determine its own jurisdiction" (Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, 1.C.J.
Reports 1962, p. 168).It was therefore certainly a matter for the World
Health Assembly to decide on its competence - and, thereby, that of the
WHO - to submit a request to the Court for an advisory opinion on the
question under consideration, having regard to the terms of the Constitu-
tion of the Organization and those of the Agreement of 10 July 1948
bringing it into relationship with the United Nations. But likewise it is

incumbent on the Court to satisfy itself that the conditions governing its
own competence to give the opinion requested are met; through the ref-
erence made, respectively, by Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter to
the "scope of [the]activities" ofthe Organization and by Article X, para-
graph 2, of the Agreement of 10July 1948to its "competence", the Court
also finds itself obliged, in the present case, to interpret the Constitution
of the WHO.
The exercise of the functions entrusted to the Court under Article 65,
paragraph 1, of its Statute requires it to furnish such an interpretation,
independently of any operation of the specificrecourse mechanism which
Article 75 of the WHO Constitution reserves for cases in which a ques-
tion or dispute arises between States concerning the interpretation or
application of that instrument; and in doing so the Court arrives at dif-

ferent conclusions from those reached by the World Health Assembly
when it adopted resolution WHA46.40.

30. Nor can the Court accept the argument that the General Assembly
of the United Nations, as the source from which the WHO derives its
power to request advisory opinions, has, in its resolution 49175K, con-
firmed the competence of that organization to request an opinion on the
question submitted to the Court. In the last preambular paragraph of
that resolution, the General Assembly

"[welcomed]resolution 46140of 14May 1993of the Assembly of the
World Health Organization, in which the organization requested the
International Court of Justice to givean advisory opinion on whether
the use of nuclear weapons by a State in war or other armed conflict
would be a breach of its obligations under international law, includ-
ing the Constitution of the World Health Organization".

In expressing this opinion, the General Assembly clearly reflected the
wish of a majority of States that the Assembly should lend its political
support to the action taken by the WHO, which it welcomed. However,
the Court does not consider that, in doing so, the General Assembly
meant to pass upon the competence of the WHO to request an opinion
on the question raised. Moreover, the General Assembly could evidentlynot have intended to disregard the limits within which Article 96, para-
graph 2, of the Charter allows it to authorize the specialized agencies

to request opinions from the Court - limits which were reaffirmed in
Article X of the relationship agreement of 10 July 1948.

31. Having arrived at the viewthat the request for an advisory opinion
submitted by the WHO does not relate to a question which arises "within
the scope of [the] activities" of that Organization in accordance with
Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter, the Court finds that an essential
condition of founding its jurisdiction in the present case is absent and
that itcannot, accordingly, give the opinion requested. Consequently, the
Court is not called upon to examine the arguments which were laid
before it with regard to the exercise of its discretionary power to give an

opinion.

32. For these reasons.

By eleven votes to three,

Finds that it is not able to give the advisory opinion which was
requested of it under World Health Assembly resolution WHA46.40
dated 14 May 1993.
IN FAVOUR: President Bedjaoui; Vice-Pvesident Schwebel; Judges Oda,
Guillaume, Ranjeva, Herczegh, Shi, Fleischhauer, VereshchetinF ,errari
Bravo, Higgins;

AGAINST :Judges Shahabuddeen,Weeramantry,Koroma.

Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this eighth day of July, one thousand nine
hundred and ninety-six, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the
archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Secretary-General
of the United Nations and the Director-General of the World Health
Organization, respectively.

(Signed) Mohammed BEDJAOUI,

President.
(Signed) Eduardo VALENCIA-OSPINA,

Registrar. Judges RANJEVand FERRARBIRAVO append declarations to the Advi-
sory Opinion of the Court.

Judge ODAappends a separate opinion to the Advisory Opinion of the
Court.

Judges SHAHABUDDE EEN, RAMANT anY KOROMA append dissent-
ing opinions to the Advisory Opinion of the Court.

(Initialled) M.B.
(Initialled) E.V.O.

Bilingual Content

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRETS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

LICÉITÉ DE L'UTILISATION
DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES PAR UN ÉTAT
DANS UN CONFLIT ARMÉ

AVIS CONSULTATIF DU 8 JUILLET 1996

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

LEGALITY OF THE USE BY A STATE
OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS
IN ARMED CONFLICT

ADVISORY OPINION OF 8 JULY 1996 Mode officiel de citation:

Licéitéde l'utilisation des armes nucléairespar un Etat
dans un conflit armé,avisonsultut$
C.I.J. Recueil 1996, p. 66

Officia1citatio:

Legalitin Armed ConJEict,Advisory Opinion,Weapons
I.C.J. Reports 1996, p. 66

No de vente:
ISSN 0074-4441 Sales number 678
ISBN 92-1-070742-7 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

~ô1&général
no93 8 juillet1996

LICÉITÉ DE L'UTILISATION

DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES PAR UN ÉTAT

DANS UN CONFLIT ARMÉ

Compétencede la Cour pour donner lavis consultatif demandé - Para-
graphe 1 de l'article 65 du Statut et paragraphe 2 de l'article 96 de la Charte
- Institution spécialiséeautorisàe solliciter des avis conformémenà la
Charte - ((Questionjuridique))- Aspects politiques de la question po-ée
Mobiles qui auraient inspiréla requête et implications politiquesque pourrait
avoir l'avis Question seposant ((dansle cadre de [l'/activité»de l'Organisa-

tion requérante - Interprétation de l'acte constitutif de l'Organisat-on
Article 2 de la Constitution de l'Organisation mondialede la S-ntAbsence
de lien de connexitéufjsant entre lesj'onctions dévolàeI'Oïganisation et la
questionposée - ((Principede spécial»t- Relations entre l'Organisation des
Nations Unies et les institutions spécialiséesProblème de la pratique de
l'Organisation mondiale de la Santédans le domainedes armes nucléaires-
Résolution régulièrement adoptéde'un point de vueprocéduralet question de
savoir si cette résolution a été adoptéea vire- Résolutionde l'Assemblée
généraledes Nations Unies((sefélicit[ant/ »de la demande d'avisprésenpar

l'organisation mondiale de la Santé Conclusion.

AVIS CONSULTATIF

Présents: M. BEDJAOUP I,résident;M. SCHWEBEV Li,ce-Président;MM. ODA,
GUILLAUMS E, AHABUDDE WENE, RAMANTRY, RANJEVAH , ERCZEGH,
SHI, FLEISCHHAUE KR,ROMA, VERESHCHETIN FE, RRARIBRAVO,
Mme HIGGINS j,ges; M. VALENCIA-OSPIN GAre,fjer.

1. Par une lettre en date du 27 août 1993, enregistréeau Greffe le 3 sep-
tembre 1993, le Directeur généralde l'Organisation mondiale de la Santé(ci-

aprèsdénommée l'«OMS ») a officiellementcommuniquéau Greffier une décision
de l'Assembléemondiale de la Santé tendantsoumettre une questionàla Cour INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

YEAR 1996 1996
8 July
General List
8 July 1996 No. 93

LEGALITY OF THE USE BY A STASE

OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

IN ARMED CONFLICT

Jurisdiction of the Court to give the advisoryopinionrequeste- Article 65,
paragraplz1, of the Statute and Article 96,paragraph 2, oj the Chart-r Spe-
cialized agency authorized to request opinions under the Charter - "Legal
question" - Political aspects oj the question posed- Motives said to have
inspired the request and political implicationsthat the opinion might hav-
Question arising "ivithinthe scope of [the] activities" of the requesting Organi-
zation - Inteïpretation of the constitution of the Organizati-n Article 2 of
the WorldHealth 01,ganizationCorzstitutio- Absence of sufficient connection
between thefunctions vested in the Organization and the question posed -
"Principle of speciality- Relationship between the UnitedNations and the

specialized agencies- Issue of World Health Organization practicein thejeld
of nuclear weapons - Resolution duly adoptedfrom a procedural point of vieiv
and question ivhetherthat resolution has been adoptedntra vires- Resolution
of theUnitedNations GeneralAssembly "welcoming" tlzerequestfor an opinion
submitted by the World Healtlz Organization - Conclusion.

ADVISORY OPINION

Present : President BEDJAOU ; I Vice-President SCHWEB ELJudges ODA,
GUILLAUME S,HAHABUDDEE WNE,ERAMANTRR Y, NJEVAH , ERCZEGH,
SHI, FLEISCHHAUER K,OROMA, VERESHCHETIN F, RRARIBRAVO,
HIGGINSR ; egistrar VALENCIA-OSPINA.

1. By a letter dated 27 August 1993, filed in the Registry on 3 September
1993, the Director-General of the World Health Organization (hereinafter
called "the WHO") officially communicated to the Registrar a decision taken
by the World Health Assembly to submit a question to the Court for an advi-67 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVIS CONSULTATIF)

pour avis consultatif. La question est énoncéedans la résolution WHA46.40,
adoptéepar l'Assembléele 14mai 1993.Cette résolution, dont le texte français
et anglais certifiéconforme était joint ladite lettre, se lit comme suit:

«La quarante-sixième Assembléemondiale de la Santé,
Ayant présents à l'esprit les principes énoncésdans la Constitution de
l'OMS;
Prenant note du rapport du Directeur généralsur les effets des armes
nucléairessur la santéet l'environnement ';

Rappelant les résolutionsWHA34.38, WHA36.28 et WHA40.24 sur les
effets de la guerre nucléairesur la santé et les services de santé;
Reconnaissant qu'il a étéétabli qu'aucun service de santé au monde
n'étaitcapable d'améliorerde manière significativeune situation résultant
de l'utilisation ne serait-ce que d'une seule arme nucléaire2;

Rappelant la résolution WHA42.26 sur la contribution de l'OMS aux
efforts internationaux en faveur d'un développementdurable et la résolu-
tion WHA45.31 qui appelle l'attention sur les effets de la dégradation de
l'environnement sur la santé,etreconnaissant les conséquences àcourt età
long terme sur I'environnement de l'utilisation d'armes nucléaires,qui se
feront sentir sur la santéde l'homme pendant des générations;

Rappelant que la prévention primaire est le seul moyen approprié de
maîtriser les effets sur la santé et l'environnement de l'utilisation d'armes
nucléaires 2;
Notant la préoccupation des milieux de la santépartout dans le monde
devant la menace permanente que constituent les armes nucléairespour la
santéet l'environnement;

Considérant que le rôle de l'OMS tel qu'il est défiians sa Constitution
est d'agir en tant qu'autoritédirectrice et coordonnatrice,dans le domaine
de la santé,des travaux ayant un caractère international (article 2 a)); de
proposer des conventions, accords et règlements (article 2 k)); de faire
connaître les techniques administratives et sociales concernant l'hygiène
publique et les soins médicaux préventifs eturatifs (articlep)); et, d'une
manièregénéraled , e prendre toute mesure nécessairepour atteindre le but
assigné à l'organisation (article 2 v));
Consciente du fait que la préventionprimaire des risques pour la santé

constituéspar les armes nucléairessuppose de précisercomment la ques-
tion de leur utilisation est envisagéeau regard du droit international et
qu'au cours des quarante-huit dernières annéesles Etats Membres ont
exprimé des vues très divergentes quant à la licéitéde l'utilisation des
armes nucléaires ;

1. Décide conformément à l'article 96.2 de la Charte des Nations
Unies, à l'article 76 de la Constitution de l'organisation mondiale de la
Santéet à l'article X de l'accord entre l'Organisation des Nations Unies et
l'organisation mondiale de la Santéapprouvé par l'Assemblée générale
des Nations Unies le 15 novembre 1947 dans sa résolution 124 (II), de

Document A46130.
' Voir Effets de la guerre nuclésur la santéet les servicesde santi (2' éd.),
Genève, Organisation mondiale dea Santé, 1987.sory opinion. The question is set forth in resolution WHA46.40 adopted by the
Assembly on 14May 1993.That resolution, certified copies of the English and
French texts of which were enclosed with the said letter, reads as follows:

"The Forty-sixth World Health Assembly,
Bearing in mind the principles laid down in the WHO Constitution;

Noting the report of the Director-General on health and environmental
effects of nuclear weapons ';

Recalling resolutions WHA34.38, WHA36.28 and WHA40.24 on the
effects of nuclear war on health and health services;
Recognizing that it has been established that no health service in the
world can alleviate in any significantway a situation resulting from the use
of even one single nuclear weapon';
Recalling resolutions WHA42.26 on WHO'Scontribution to the inter-
national efforts towards sustainable development and WHA45.31 which
draws attention to the effects on health of environmental degradation and
recognizing the short- and long-term environmental consequences of the

use of nuclear weapons that would affect human health for generations;

Recalling that primary prevention is the only appropriate means to deal
with the health and environmental effects of the use of nuclear weapons2;

Noting the concern of the world health community about the continued
threat to health and the environment from nuclear weapons;

Mindful of the role of WHO as defined in its Constitution to act as
the directing and coordinating authority on international health work
(Article 2 (a)); to propose conventions, agreements and regulations
(Article2 (k)) ;to report on administrative and social techniques affecting
public health from preventive and curative points of view (Article 2 (p));
and to take al1necessary action to attain the objectivesof the Organization
(Article 2 (v));

Realizing that primary prevention of the health hazards of nuclear
weapons requires clarity about the status in international law of their use,
and that over the last 48 years marked differences of opinion have been
expressed by Member States about the lawfulness of the use of nuclear
;
weapons

1. Decides, in accordance with Article 96 (2) of the Charter of the
United Nations, Article 76 of the Constitution of the World Health
Organization and Article X of the Agreement between the United Nations
and the World Health Organization approved by the General Assembly of
the United Nations on 15 November 1947 in its resolution 124 (II), to

*See Effects of Nuclear War on Health and Health Services (2nd ed.), Geneva,
WHO, 1987. demander à la Cour internationale de Justice de donner un avis consultatif
sur la question suivante:
«Compte tenu des effets des armes nucléaires sur la santéet l'envi-
ronnement, leur utilisation par un Etat au cours d'une guerre ou d'un

autre conflit arméconstituerait-elle une violation de ses obligations au
regard du droit international, y compris la Constitution de l'OMS?»
2. Prie le Directeur général detransmettre la présente résolution à la
Cour internationale de Justice, enyjoignant tous les documents pouvant
élucider laquestion, conformément à l'article 65 du Statut de la Cour. »

2. Conformément au paragraphe 2 de l'article 65 du Statut, le Directeur
général del'OMS a communiqué àla Cour un dossier contenant des documents
pouvant servir à éluciderla question; ce dossier est parvenu au Greffe en plu-
sieurs envois.
3. Par des lettres en date du 14et du 20 septembre 1993, le Greffier adjoint
a notifiéla requêtepour avis consultatifàtous les Etats admis àester devant la
Cour, conformément au paragraphe 1 de l'article 66 du Statut.
4. Par une ordonnance en date du 13septembre 1993,la Cour a décidéque
l'OMS et les Etats membres de cette organisation admis à ester devant la Cour
étaient susceptibles de fournir des renseignements sur la question, conformé-

ment au paragraphe 2 de l'article 66 du Statut; et, par la mêmeordonnance, la
Cour a fixéau 10juin 1994la date d'expiration du délaidans lequel des exposés
écritspourraient lui êtreprésentéssur cette question. La communication spé-
ciale et directe prévueau paragraphe 2 de l'article 66 du Statut a été incorporée
aux lettres sus-indiquées adresséesaux Etats concernésle 14et le 20 septembre
1993.Une communication analogue a été faite à l'OMS par le Greffier adjoint
le 14septembre 1993.
5. Par une ordonnance en date du 20juin 1994,le Président de laCour, fai-
sant suite aux demandes de plusieurs Etats, a reporté au 20 septembre 1994la
date d'expiration du délaipour la présentation d'exposés écritsP . ar la même
ordonnance, le Président a fixéau 20 juin 1995 la date d'expiration du délai
dans lequel les Etats ou organisations ayant présentéun exposé écritpourraient
présenter des observations écrites surles autres exposés écrits conformémentu

paragraphe 4 de l'article 66 du Statut.
6. Des exposés écritsont été déposépsar les Etats suivants: Allemagne,
Arabie saoudite, Australie, Azerbaïdjan, Colombie, Costa Rica, Etats-Unis
d'Amérique, Fédération de Russie, Finlande, France, Iles Salomon, Inde,
République islamique d'Iran, Irlande, Italie, Japon, Kazakhstan, Lituanie,
Malaisie, Mexique, Nauru, Norvège, Nouvelle-Zélande,Ouganda, Papouasie-
Nouvelle-Guinée, Pays-Bas, Philippines, République de Moldova, République
populaire démocratique de Corée, Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et
d'Irlande du Nord, Rwanda, Samoa, Sri Lanka, Suède et Ukraine. Par ailleurs,
des observations écrites sur ces exposés écritsont été présentéepsar les Etats
suivants: Costa Rica, Etats-Unis d'Amérique, Fédérationde Russie, France,
Iles Salomon, Inde, Malaisie, Nauru et Royaume-Uni de Grande-Bretagne et

d'Irlande du Nord. Dès réception decesexposés et deces observations, le Gref-
fier en a transmis le textetous les Etats ayant pris partàla procédure écrite.
7. La Cour a décidé detenir, àcompter du 30 octobre 1995, des audiences
publiques au cours desquelles des exposés oraux pourraient être faits devant
elle par tout Etat et toute organisation ayant étéjugéssusceptibles de fournir
des renseignements sur la question à elle soumise. Par des lettres en date du request the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on
the following question :

'In view of the health and environmental effects, would the use of
nuclear weapons by a State in war or other armed conflict be a breach of
its obligations under international law including the WHO Constitu-
tion?'
2. Requests the Director-General to transmit this resolution to the Inter-
national Court of Justice, accompanied by al1documents likely to throw
light upon the question, in accordance with Article 65 of the Statute
of the Court."

2. Pursuant to Article 65, paragraph 2, of the Statute, the Director-General
of the WHO communicated to the Court a dossier of documents likelyto throw
light upon the question; the dossier reached the Registry in several instalments.

3. By letters dated 14and 20 September 1993,the Deputy-Registrar, pursu-
ant to Article 66, paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court, gave notice of the
request for an advisory opinion to al1States entitled to appear before the Court.
4. By an Order dated 13 September 1993the Court decided that the WHO
and the member States of that Organization entitled to appear before the Court
were likely to be able to furnish information on the question, in accordance
with Article 66, paragraph 2, of the Statute; and, by the same Order, the Court

fixed 10 June 1994 as the time-limit for the submission to it of written state-
ments on the question. The special and direct communication provided for in
Article 66, paragraph 2. of the Statute was included in the aforementioned let-
ters of 14 and 20 September 1993addressed to the States concerned. A similar
communication was transmitted to the WHO by the Deputy-Registrar on
14 September 1993.
5. By an Order dated 20 June 1994, the President of the Court, upon the
request of several States, extended to 20 September 1994the time-limit for the
submission of written statements. By the same Order, the President fixed
20 June 1995 as the time-limit within which States and organizations having
presented written statements might submit written comments on the other writ-
teil statements, in accordance with Article 66, paragraph 4, of the Statute.

6. Written statements were filed by the following States: Australia, Azerbai-
jan, Colombia, Costa Rica, Democratic People's Republic of Korea, Finland,

France, Germany, India, Ireland, Islamic Republic of Iran, Italy, Japan,
Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Malaysia, Mexico, Nauru, Netherlands, New Zealand,
Norway, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Republic of Moldova, Russian Fed-
eration, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Solomon Islands, Sri Lanka, Sweden,
Uganda, Ukraine, United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland,
and United States of America. In addition, written comments on those written
statements were submitted by the following States: Costa Rica, France, India,
Malaysia, Nauru, Russian Federation, Solomon Islands, United Kingdom of
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and United States of America. Upon
receipt ofthose statements and comments, the Registrar communicated the text
to al1States having taken part in the written proceedings.
7. The Court decided to hold public sittings, opening on 30 October 1995,at
which oral statements might be submitted to the Court by any State or organi-
zation which had been considered likely to be able to furnish information on
the question before the Court. By letters dated 23 June 1995, the Registrar23juin 1995,leGreffier a prié l'OMSet sesEtats membres admis à ester devant
la Cour de lui faire savoir s'ils avaient l'intention de participerla procédure
orale; il était indique, dans ces lettres, que la Cour avait décidéd'entendre au
cours d'une seule série d'audiencespubliques les exposésoraux relatifs à la
demande d'avis consultatif de l'OMS et ceux concernant la demande d'avis

consultatif dont la Cour avait entre-temps étésaisie par l'Assemblée générale
des Nations Unies sur la question de la Licéitéde la menace ou de lémploi
d'armes nucléaires,étant entendu que l'OMS ne serait habilitée à prendre la
parole qu'à propos de la demande soumise par elle-même;et il y était par
ailleurs préciséque les participantsà la procédure orale n'ayant pas pris partà
la procédure écritese verraient communiquer le texte des exposés etobserva-
tions produits dans le cadre de cette dernière procédure.
8. Conformément à l'article 106 du Règlement, la Cour a décidéde rendre
accessible au public le texte des exposés écrits et desobservations écrites à la
date d'ouverture de la procédure orale.

9. Au cours d'audiences publiques tenues du 30 octobre 1995 au 15 no-
vembre 1995,la Cour a entendu en leurs exposésoraux et dans l'ordre suivant:
pour l'OMS: M. Claude-Henri Vignes, conseiller juridique ;

pour le Commonwealth M. Gavan Griffith, Q.C., Solicitor-General
d'Australie: d'Australie, conseil,
l'honorable Gareth Evans, Q.C., sénateur, mi-
nistre des affaires étrangères, conseil;

pour la République arabe M. Georges Abi-Saab, professeur de droit inter-
d'Egypte : national à l'Institut universitaire de hautes
études internationales de Genève, membre de
l'Institut de droit international;

pour la Républiquefrançaise: M. Marc Perrin de Brichambaut, directeur des
affaires juridiques au ministère des affaires
étrangères,
M. Alain Pellet, professeur de droit internatio-
nal à l'université de Paris X et à l'Institut
d'étudespolitiques de Paris;

pour la République M. Hartmut Hillgenberg, directeur général des
fédéraled'Allemagne: affaires juridiques du ministère des affaires
étrangères;
pour l'Indonésie: S. Exc. M. Johannes Berchmans Soedarmanto

Kadarisman, ambassadeur d'Indonésie aux
Pays-Bas;
pour leMexique: S. Exc. M. Sergio Gonzalez Galvez, ambassa-
deur, ministre adjoint des affaires étrangères;

pour la République S. Exc. M. Mohammad J. Zarif, ministre adjoint
islamique d'Iran: aux affaires juridiques et internationales, mi-
nistère des affaires étrangères;

pour l'Italie: M. Umberto Leanza, professeur de droit inter-
national à la facultéde droit de l'université
de Rome «Tor Vergata)), chef du service du
contentieux diplomatique du ministère des
affaires étrangères requested the WHO and its member States entitled to appear before the Court
to inform him whether they intended to take part in the oral proceedings; it

was indicated, in those letters, that the Court had decided to hear, during the
same public sittings, oral statements relating to the request for an advisory
opinion from the WHO as wellas oral statements concerning the request for an
advisory opinion meanwhile laid before the Court by the General Assembly of
the United Nations on the question of the Legality of the Threat or Use of
Nuclear Weapons, on the understanding that the WHO would be entitled to
speak only in regard to the request it had itself submitted; and it was further
specifiedtherein that the participants in the oral proceedings which had not
taken part in the written proceedings would receive the text of the statements
and comments produced in the course of the latter.
8. Pursuant to Article 106of the Rules of Court, the Court decided to make

the written statements and comments submitted to the Court accessible to the
public, with effect from the opening of the oral proceedings.
9. In the course of public sittings held from 30 October 1995to 15Novem-
ber 1995,the Court heard oral statements in the following order by:

for the WHO: Mr. Claude-Henri Vignes, Legal Counsel;
for the Commoni.vealth Mr. Gavan Griffith, Q.C., Solicitor-General of Aus-
of Australia : tralia, Counsel,
The Honourable Gareth Evans, Q.C., Senator,
Minister for Foreign Affairs, Counsel;

jor the Arnb Republic Mr. Georges Abi-Saab, Professor of International
of E~YP f: Law, Graduate Institute of International
Studies, Geneva, Member of the Institute of
International Law;

for the French Republic: Mr.Marc Perrin de Brichambaut, Director of Legal
Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

Mr. Alain Pellet, Professor of International Law,
University of Paris X and Institute of Political
Studies, Paris;

for the Federal Republic Mr. Hartmut Hillgenberg, Director-General of
of Gevmany : Legal Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs;

for Indonesia : H.E. Mr. Johannes Berchmans Soedarmanto
Kadarisman, Ambassador of Indonesia to the

Netherlands ;
for Mexico: H.E. Mr. Sergio Gonzalez Galvez, Ambassador,
Under-Secretary of Foreign Relations;

for the Islarnic H.E. Mr. Mohammad J. Zarif, Deputy Minister,
Republic of Ivan : Legai and International Affairs, Ministry of For-
eign Affairs;
for Italy : Mr. Umberto Leanza, Professor of International

Law at the Faculty of Law at the University of
Rome "Tor Vergata", Head of the Diplomatic
Legal Serviceat the Ministry of Foreign Affairs ;pour leJapon: S. Exc. M. Takekazu Kawamura, ambassadeur,
directeur généralau contrôle des armements
et aux affaires scientifiques, ministère des
affaires étrangères,
M. Takashi Hiraoka, maire d'Hiroshima,
M. Iccho Itoh, maire de Nagasaki;

pour laMalaisie: S. Exc. M. Tan Sri Razali Ismail, ambassadeur,
représentant permanent de la Malaisie auprès
de l'Organisation des Nations Unies,
Dato' Mohtar Abdullah, Attorney-Generul;

pour la Nouijelle-Zélande: l'honorable Paul East, Q.C., Attorney-General
de Nouvelle-Zélande,
M. Allan Bracegirdle, directeur adjoint de la
division juridique du ministère des affaires
étrangèreset du commerce extérieurde Nou-
velle-Zélande;

pour les Plzilippines: S. Exc. M. Rodolfo S. Sanchez, ambassadeur
des Philippines aux Pays-Bas,
M. Merlin M. Magallona, professeur, doyen de
la facultéde droit de l'université des Philip-
pines;

pour laFédération M. A. G. Khodakov, directeur du servicejuri-
de Russie: dique du ministère des affairesétrangères;

pour leSamoa: S. Exc. M. Neroni Slade, ambassadeur, repré-
sentant permanent du Samoa auprès de
l'Organisation des Nations Unies,
M'leLaurence Boisson de Chazournes, chargée
d'enseignement à l'Institut universitaire de
hautes études internationales de Genève,
M. Roger S. Clark, professeur à la faculté de
droit de l'université Rutgers, Camden, New
Jersey;

pour les Iles Marshall: l'honorable Theodore G. Kronmiller, conseiller
juridique de l'ambassade des Iles Marshall
aux Etats-Unis d'Amérique,
Mme Lijon Eknilang, membre du conseil, gou-
vernement local de l'atoll de Rongelap;

pour les ZlesSalomon: S. Exc. l'honorable Victor Ngele, ministre de la
police et de la sécuriténationale,
M. Jean Salmon, professeur de droit à l'univer-
sité librede Bruxelles,

M. Eric David, professeur de droit à l'univer-
sitélibre de Bruxelles,
M. Philippe Sands, chargé de cours à la School
of Oriental and African Studies de l'univer-
sitéde Londres et directeur juridique de la
Foundation for International Environmental
Law and Development,for Japan H.E. Mr. Takekazu Kawamura, Ambassador,
Director General for Arms Control and Scien-
tific Affairs, Ministry of Foreign Affairs,

Mr. Takashi Hiraoka, Mayor of Hiroshima,
Mr. Iccho Itoh, Mayor of Nagasaki;

jov Malaysia H.E. Mr. Tan Sri Razali Ismail, Ambassador, Per-
manent Representative of Malaysia to the United
Nations,
Dato' Mohtar Abdullah, Attorney-General;
The Honourable Paul East, Q.C., Attorney-
for New Zealand:
General of New Zealand,
Mr. Allan Bracegirdle, Deputy Director of Legal
Division of the New Zealand Ministry of For-
eign Affairs and Trade;

fol- the Philippines: H.E. Mr. Rodolfo S. Sanchez, Ambassador of the

Philippines to the Netherlands,
Professor Merlin M. Magallona, Dean, College of
Law, University of the Philippines;

fol- the Russian Mr. A. G. Khodakov, Director, Legal Department,

Fedel-ation: Ministry of Foreign Affairs;
for Samoa: H.E. Mr. Neroni Slade, Ambassador and Perma-
nent Representative of Samoa to the United
Nations,
Miss Laurence Boisson de Chazournes, Assistant
Professor, Graduate Institute of International
Studies, Geneva,

Mr. Roger S. Clark, Distinguished Professor of
Law, Rutgers University School of Law, Cam-
den, New Jersey;
for the Marshall Islands: The Honourable Theodore G. Kronmiller, Legal
Counsel, Embassy of the Marshall Islands to the
United States of America,

Mrs. Lijon Eknilang, Council Member, Rongelap
Atoll Local Government;
for Solomon Islands: The Honourable Victor Ngele, Minister of Police
and National Security,
Mr. Jean Salmon, Professor of Law, Université

libre de Bruxelles,
Mr. Eric David, Professor of Law, Université libre
de Bruxelles,
Mr. Philippe Sands, Lecturer in Law, School of
Oriental and African Studies, London Univer-
sity, and Legal Director, Foundation for Inter-
national Environmental Law and Development,71 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVIS CONSULTATIF)

M. James Crawford, professeur de droit inter-
national, titulaire de la chaire Whewell à
l'universitéde Cambridge;
pour le Costa Rica: M. Carlos Vargas-Pizarro, conseiller juridique

et envoyé spéciadlu Gouvernement du Costa
Rica;
pour le Royaume-Uni
de Grande-Bretagne le très honorable sir Nicholas Lyell, Q.C., M.P.,
et d'Irlande du Nord: Attorney-General;

pour lesEtats-Unis M. Conrad K. Harper, conseiller juridique du
d'Amérique: départementd'Etat,
M. Michael J. Matheson, conseiller juridique
adjoint principal du départementd'Etat,
M. John H. McNeill,conseillerjuridique adjoint
principal du départementde la défense;

pour le Zimbabwe; M. Jonathan Wutawunashe, chargé d'affaires
a.i. de l'ambassade du Zimbabwe aux Pays-
Bas.

Des membres de la Cour ont posé desquestions àcertains participantsàla
procédure oraleet ceux-ci y ont répondupar écrit,ainsi qu'ils en avaient été
priés,dans les délaisprévus à cet effet; la Cour ayant décidéque les autres
participants pourraient également répondre à ces questions dans les mêmes
conditions, plusieurs d'entre eux l'ont fait. D'autres questionsposéespar des
membres de la Cour ont étéadressées, plus généralement, à tout participant a
la procédureorale; plusieurs d'entre eux y ont répondupar écrit,ainsi qu'ilsen
avaient été priésd,ans les délaisprévuà cet effet.

10. La Cour tient le pouvoir de donner des avis consultatifs de l'ar-
ticle65 de son Statut, dont le paragraphe 1 est ainsi libellé:

«La Cour peut donner un avis consultatif sur toute question

juridique, à la demande de tout organe ou institution qui aura été
autorisé par la Charte des Nations Unies ou conformément à ses
dispositions à demander cet avis. ))

Il est par ailleurs préciséau paragraphe 2de l'article96 de la Charte que
les

((institutions spécialiséesqui peuvent, à un moment quelconque,
recevoir de l'Assembléegénéraleune autorisation à cet effet ont éga-
lement le droit de demander à la Cour des avis consultatifs sur des

questions juridiques qui se poseraient dans le cadre de leur activité)).
En conséquence, trois conditions sont requises pour fonder la compé-

tence de la Cour lorsqu'une requêtepour avis consultatif lui est soumise
par une institution spécialisée:l'institution dont émane la requête doit
êtredûment autorisée, conformément à la Charte, à demander des avis à Mr. James Crawford, WhewellProfessor of Inter-
national Law, University of Cambridge;

for Costa Rica: Mr. Carlos Vargas-Pizarro, Legal Counsel and
SpecialEnvoy of the Government of Costa Rica;

for the United Kingdorn The Rt. Honourable SirNicholas Lyell,Q.C.,M.P.,
of Great Britain and Her Majesty'sAttorney-General;
Northern Irelarzd:
for the United States Mr. Conrad K. Harper, Legal Adviser, United
of America: States Department of State,
Mr. Michael J. Matheson, Principal Deputy Legal

Adviser, United States Department of State,
Mr. John H. McNeill, Senior Deputy General
Counsel, United States Department of Defense;
for Zimbabwe: Mr. Jonathan Wutawunashe, Chargé d'affairesai.,
Embassy of the Republic of Zimbabwe in the
Netherlands.

Questionswereput by Members of the Court to particular participants in the
oral proceedings, which repliedin writing, as requested, within the prescribed
time-limits; the Court having decided that the other participants could also
reply to those questions on the same terms, severalof them did so. Other ques-
tions put by Members of the Court wereaddressed, more generally,to any par-
ticipant in the oral proceedings;everalofthem repliedin writing, as requested,
within the prescribed time-limits.

10. TheCourt has the authority to give advisory opinions by virtue of
Article 65 of its Statute, paragraph 1of which reads as follows:

"The Court may give an advisory opinion on any legal question at
the request of whatever body may be authorized by or in accordance
with the Charter of the United Nations to make such a request."

It is also stated, in Article96, paragraph 2, of the Charter that the

"specialized agencies, which may at any time be so authorized by the

General Assembly, may also request advisory opinions of the Court
on legal questions arising within the scope of their activities".

Consequently, three conditions must be satisfied inorder to found the
jurisdiction of the Court when a request for an advisory opinion is sub-
mitted to it by a specialized agency: the agency requesting the opinion
must be duly authorized, under the Charter, to request opinions from the72 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVISCONSULTATIF)

la Cour; l'avis sollicitédoit porter sur une question juridique; et cette
question doit se poser dans le cadre de l'activitéde l'institution requé-
rante (cf.Demande de réformationdujugement no273 du Tribunaladmi-
nistratif des Nations Unies, avisonsultatg C.I.J. Recueil 1982, p. 333-
334).
11. En ce qui concerne l'OMS, les textes précitéstrouvent leur prolon-
gement dans deux autres dispositions, auxquelles la résolution WHA46.40
de l'Assembléemondiale de la Santéfait expressément référenca eu para-
graphe 1de son dispositif. Il s'agit d'une part de l'article 76 de la Cons-
titution de cette organisation, aux termes duquel:

«Sous le couvert de l'autorisation de l'Assemblée générale des
Nations Unies ou sous le couvert de l'autorisation résultant de tout
accord entre l'organisation et les Nations Unies, l'organisation
pourra demander a la Cour internationale de Justice un avis consul-
tatif sur toute question juridique éventuelledu ressort derganisa-

tion. »
Et il s'agit d'autre part du paragraphe 2 de l'article X de l'accord du
10juillet 1948 entre l'organisation des Nations Unies et l'OMS, selon
lequel:

((L'Assemblée générale autorise l'organisation mondiale de la
Santé à demander des avis consultatifs a la Cour internationale de
Justice sur des questionsjuridiques qui seposeraient dans le cadre de
sa compétence, a l'exception de celles concernant les relations réci-
proques entre l'organisation et l'organisation des Nations Unies ou
d'autres institutions spécialisées.

Ledit accord a étéapprouvépar l'Assemblée générale de Nsations Unies
le 15novembre 1947(résolution 124(II)) et par l'Assembléemondiale de
la Santéle IOjuillet 1948(résolution[WHAI. 1023).
12. Il ne fait ainsi aucun doute que l'OMS a étédûment autorisée,
conformément au paragraphe 2 de l'article 96 de la Charteà demander

des avis consultatifs la Cour. La premièrecondition requise pour fonder
la compétencede la Cour en l'espèce estpar suite remplie. Ce point n'a
d'ailleurs fait l'objet d'aucune contestation; au demeurant, la Cour a déjà,
par le passé, acceptéde donner suite à une demande d'avis consultatif
présentéepar l'OMS (voir Interprétation de l'accord du 25 mars 1951
entre l'OMS et I'Egypte, avis consultatg C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 73 et
suiv.).

13. Plusieurs Etats ont en revanche contesté,au cours de la procédure
tant écritequ'orale, que les autres conditions posées la compétencede
la Cour soient en l'espèceréunies. Il a étésoutenu, d'une part, que la
question soumise à la Cour serait de nature essentiellement politique et,Court; the opinion requested must be on a legal question; and this ques-
tion must be one arising within the scope of the activities of the request-
ing agency (cf. Application for Review of Judgement No. 273 of the
UnitedNations Administrative Tribunal,Advisovy Opinion,I.C.J. Reports
1982, pp. 333-334).
11. Where the WHO is concerned, the above-mentioned texts are
reflected in two other provisions, to which World Health Assembly reso-
lution WHA46.40 expressly refers in paragraph 1 of its operative part.
These are, on the one hand, Article 76 of that Organization's Constitu-
tion,under which:

"Upon authorization by the General Assembly of the United
Nations or upon authorization in accordance with any agreement
between the Organization and the United Nations, the Organization
may request the International Court of Justice for an advisory
opinion on any legal question arising within the competence of the
Organization."

And on the other hand, paragraph 2 of Article X of the Agreement of
10 July 1948between the United Nations and the WHO, under which:

"The General Assembly authorizes the World Health Organiza-
tion to request advisory opinions of the International Court of Jus-
tice on legal questions arising within the scope of its competence
other than questions concerning the mutual relationships of the
Organization and the United Nations or other specialized agencies."

This agreement was approved by the United Nations General Assembly
on 15 November 1947 (resolution 124 (II)) and by the World Health
Assembly on 10July 1948(resolution [WHAl. 1021).
12. There is thus no doubt that the WHO has been duly authorized, in
accordance with Article 96,paragraph 2, of the Charter, to request advi-
sory opinions of the Court. The firstcondition which must be met in order
to found the competence of the Court in this case is thus fulfilled. More-
over, this point has not been disputed; and the Court has in the past
agreed to deal with a request for an advisory opinion submitted by the
WHO (see Zntevpretationof tlzeAgreement of 25 Mavch 1951between the
WHO and Egypt, Advisovy Opinion,I.C.J. Repovts 1980, pp. 73 et seq.).

13. However, during both the written and oral proceedings, some
States have disputed whether the other conditions necessary for theuris-
diction of the Court have been met in the present case. It has been con-
tended that the question before the Court is an essentially political one,73 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVISCONSULTATIF)

d'autre part, qu'elle sortirait du cadre des activitéspropres de l'OMS, ce
qui aurait d'emblée privé l'organisation elle-mêmede toute compétence
pour en saisir la Cour.
14. Divers arguments ont en outre été avancés à l'effet de convaincre
la Cour d'user du pouvoir discrétionnaire quiest le sien, aux termes du
paragraphe 1 de l'article 65 du Statut, de déclinerde donner l'avis solli-
cité.La Cour ne saurait toutefois exercer ce pouvoir discrétionnaire que
si ellea établiau préalablequ'ellea compétencedans l'espèceconsidérée;
si la Cour n'est pas compétente,la question de l'exercicede son pouvoir
discrétionnaire nese pose pas.

15. La Cour doit donc d'abord s'assurerque l'avisconsultatif demandé
porte bien sur une ((question juridique)) au sens de son Statut et de la
Charte des Nations Unies.
La Cour a déjà eul'occasion d'indiquer que les questions

((libelléesen termes juridiques et soul[evant] des problèmes de droit
international...sont, par leur nature même, susceptiblesde recevoir
une réponse fondée endroit ...[et]ont en principe un caractèrejuri-
dique)) (Sahara occidental, avis consultut$ C.I.J. Recueil 1975,
p. 18, par. 15).

16. La question que l'Assembléemondiale de la Santéa posée à la
Cour constitue effectivementune questionjuridique, car la Cour est priée
de se prononcer sur le point de savoir si,

((compte tenu des effets des armes nucléairessur la santé et l'envi-
ronnement, leur utilisation par un Etat au cours d'une guerre ou
d'un autre conflit arméconstituerait ..une violation de ses obliga-
tions au regard du droit international, y compris la Constitution de
l'OMS ».

Pour ce faire, la Cour doit déterminerles obligations des Etats au regard
des règlesde droit invoquées etapprécierla conformité auxdites obliga-
tions du comportement envisagé,apportant ainsi à la question poséeune
réponse fondéeen droit.
Que cette question revêtepar ailleurs des aspects politiques, comme
c'est, par la nature des choses, le cas de bon nombre de questions qui
viennent à se poser dans la vie internationale, ne suffit pàsla priver de
son caractère de ((questionjuridique)) età ((enleverà la Cour une com-

pétencequi lui est expressément conférép ear son Statut)) (Demande de
réformation du jugement no 158 du Tribunal administratif des Nations
Unies, avis consultut$ C.I.J. Recueil 1973, p. 172, par. 14). Quels que
soient les aspects politiques de la question posée,la Cour ne saurait refu-
ser un caractère juridiqueà une question qui l'inviteà s'acquitter d'une
tâche essentiellement judiciaireà savoir l'appréciation dela licéitde laand also that it goes beyond the scope of the WHO'Sproper activities,
which would in limine have deprived the Organization itself of any com-
et en ceto seisethe Court of it.
14. Further, various arguments have been put forward for the purpose
of persuading the Court to use the discretionary power it possessesunder
Article 65, paragraph 1, of the Statute, to decline to give the opinion
sought. The Court can however only exercisethis discretionary power if
it has first established that it has jurisdiction in the case in question; if the
Court lacksjurisdiction, the question of exercisingits discretionary power
does not arise.

15. The Court must therefore first satisfy itself that the advisory
opinion requested does indeed relate to a "legal question" within the
meaning of its Statute and the United Nations Charter.
The Court has already had occasion to indicate that questions

"framed in terms of law and rais[ing]problems of international law
. . are by their very nature susceptible of a reply based on law . ..
[and] appear . . .to be questions of a legal character" (Western
Sahara, Advisory Opinion,I.C.J. Reports 1975, p. 18, para. 15).

16. The question put to the Court by the World Health Assembly does
in fact constitute a legal question, as the Court is requested to rule on
whether,

"in view of the health and environmental effects, . . .the use of
nuclear weapons by a State in war or otherarmed conflict [would]be
a breach of its obligations under international law including the
WHO Constitution".

To do this, the Court must identify the obligations of States under the

rules of law invoked, and assess whether the behaviour in question con-
forms to those obligations, thus giving an answer to the question posed
based on law.
The fact that this question also has political aspects, as, in the nature
of things, is the case with so many questions which arise in international
life,does not sufficeto deprive it of its character as a "legal question" and
to "deprive the Court of a competence expressly conferred on it by its
Statute" (Application for Review of Judgement No. 158 of the United
Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1973,
p. 172,para. 14).Whatever its political aspects, the Court cannot refuse
to admit the legal character of a question which invitesit to discharge an
essentiallyjudicial task, namely, an assessment of the legality of the pos-
sibleconduct of States with regard to the obligations imposed upon them74 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVIS CONSULTATIF)

conduite éventuelle d'Etats au regard des obligations que le droit inter-
national leur impose (cf. Conditions de l'admission d'un Etat comme
Membre des Nations Unies (article 4 de la Charte), avis consultut$
C.I.J. Recueil 1948, p. 61-62; Compétencede l'Assembléegénérale pour
l'udmissiond'un Etat aux Nations Unies, avis consultut$ C.I.J. Recueil
1950, p. 6-7; Certaines dépenses desNations Unies (article 17, para-
graphe 2, de la Charte), avis consultut$ C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 155).
Au demeurant, comme la Cour l'a dit dans l'avis qu'ellea donné en

1980au sujet de 17Znterprétatiodne l'uccorddu 25mars 1951 entre l'OMS
et I'Egypte:
«En fait, lorsque des considérationspolitiques jouent un rôle mar-
quant il peut être particulièrement nécessaire à une organisation

internationale d'obtenir un avis consultatif de la Cour sur les prin-
cipesjuridiques applicables àla matièreen discussion, surtoutquand
ces principes peuvent mettre en jeu l'interprétation desa constitu-
tion.» (C.I.J. Recueil 1980, p. 87, par. 33.)

17. La Cour considèreen outre que la nature politique des mobiles qui
auraient inspiré la requêteet les implications politiques que pourrait
avoir l'avisdonné sont sans pertinence au regard de l'établissementde sa
compétencepour donner un tel avis.

18. La Cour recherchera maintenant si l'avisconsultatif demandépar
l'OMS porte sur une question qui se pose «dans le cadre de [l']activité»
de cette organisation, conformémentau paragraphe 2 de l'article 96 de la
Charte.
La Cour note que cette troisièmecondition à laquelle est subordonnée
sa compétence consultative fait l'objet de formulations quelque peu dif-
férentesau paragraphe 2 de l'article X de l'accord du 10juillet 1948 -
qui vise les questions se posant dans le cadre de la «compétence» de

l'OMS - et àl'article 76de la Constitution de l'OMS - qui seréfèreaux
questions «du ressort »de l'organisation. Elleconsidèrecependant qu'aux
fins de la présenteespèceces différences deformulation sont sans impor-
tance.
19. A l'effet de circonscrire le domaine d'activitéou le champ de com-
pétenced'une organisation internationale, il convient de se reporter aux
règlespertinentes de l'organisation et, en premier lieu,à son acte consti-
tutif. D'un point de vue formel, les actes constitutifs d'organisations
internationales sont des traités multilatéraux, auxquels s'appliquent les
règlesbien établiesd'interprétation des traités. Comme la Cour l'a dit à

propos de la Charte:
«Dans les affaires précédentesoù la Cour a dû interpréter la
Charte des Nations Unies, ellea suivi lesprincipes et lesrèglesappli-
cables en général à l'interprétation des traités,étantdonnéqu'elle aby international law (cf. Conditions of Admission of a State to Member-
ship in the United Nations (Article 4 of Charter), Advisory Opinion,
1948, I.C.J. Reports 1947-1948, pp. 61-62; Competence of the General
Assembly for the Admission of a State to the United Nations, Advisory
Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1950, pp. 6-7; Certain Expenses of the United
Nations (Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion,
I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 155).
Furthermore, as the Court said in the Opinion it gave in 1980concern-

ing the Interpretation of the Agreement of 25 March 1951 between the
WHO and Egypt :
"Indeed, in situations in which political considerations are promi-
nent it may be particularly necessary for an international organiza-

tion to obtain an advisory opinion from the Court as to the legal
principles applicable with respect to the matter under debate, espe-
cially when these may include the interpretation of its constitution."
(1.C.J. Reports 1980, p. 87, para. 33.)
17. The Court also finds that the political nature of the motives which

may be said to have inspired the request and the political implications
that the opinion given might have are of no relevance in the establish-
ment of its jurisdiction to give such an opinion.

18. TheCourt willnow seekto determine whether the advisory opinion
requested by the WHO relates to a question which arises "within the
scope of [the] activities" of that Organization, in accordance with
Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter.
The Court notes that this third condition to which its advisory func-
tion is subject is expressed in slightly different terms in Article X, para-
graph 2, of the Agreement of 10 July 1948 - which refers to questions
arising within the scope of the WHO'S"competence" - and in Article 76
of the WHO Constitution - which refers to questions arising "within the
competence" of the Organization. However, it considers that, for the pur-
poses of this case, no point of significance turns on the different formu-

lations.
19. In order to delineate the field of activity or the area of competence
of an international organization, one must refer to the relevant rules of
the organization and, in the first place, to its constitution. From a forma1
standpoint, the constituent instruments of international organizations are
multilateral treaties, to which the well-established rules of treaty interpre-
tation apply. As the Court has said with respect to the Charter:

"On the previous occasions when the Court has had to interpret
the Charter of the United Nations, it has followed the principles and
rules applicable in general to the interpretation of treaties, since it75 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVIS CONSULTATIF)

reconnu que la Charte est un traitémultilatéral,bien qu'elleprésente
certainescaractéristiques spéciales.(Certaines dépensesdes Nations
Unies(article 17,paragraphe2, de la Charte), avis consultut$ C.I.J.
Recueil 1962, p. 157.)

Mais les actes constitutifs d'organisations internationales sont aussi des
traitésd'un type particulier; ils ont pour objet de créer des sujetsde droit
nouveaux, dotésd'une certaine autonomie, auxquels les parties confient
pour tâche la réalisation debuts communs. De tels traités peuvent poser
des problèmes d'interprétation spécifiques enraison, notamment, de leur
caractère à la fois conventionnel et institutionnel; la nature mêmede
l'organisation crééel,es objectifs qui lui ont été assignépsar sesfondateurs,
les impératifsliésà l'exercice effectifde sesfonctions ainsi que sa pratique
propre, constituent autant d'éléments qui peuvent mériter,le cas échéant,
une attention spécialeau moment d'interpréterces traités constitutifs.

Conformément à la règlecoutumière d'interprétation qui a trouvé son
expression à l'article 31 de la convention de Vienne de 1969 sur le droit
des traités, les termes d'un traité doivent être interprétés ((dans leur
contexte et à la lumièrede son objet et de son but» et il doit être
((tenu compte, en mêmetemps que du contexte:

b) [d]e toute pratique ultérieurement suivie dans l'application du
traité par laquelle est établi l'accord des parties à l'égard de
l'interprétation du traité)).

La Cour a eu l'occasion d'appliquer cette règle d'interprétation à plu-
sieurs reprises (voirentence arbitrale du 31juillet 1989(Guinée-Bissau
c. Sénégal),arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1991, p. 69-70,par. 48; Différendfion-
talier terrestre, insulaireet maritime (El Salvador/Honduras; Nicaragua
(intervenant)), arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1992, p. 582-583,par. 373, et p. 586,
par. 380; Différend territovial(Jamahiriya arabe libyenne/Tchad), arrêt,
C.I.J. Recueil 1994,p. 21-22, par. 41;Délimitationmaritime et questions

territoriales entre Qatar et Bahreïn (Qatar c. Bahrein), compétence et
recevabilité,arrêt,C.I.J. Recueil 1995, p. 18,par. 33); elle en fera égale-
ment application en la présente espèceaux fins de déterminer si, d'après
la Constitution de l'OMS, la question à laquelle il lui a étédemandéde
répondre se pose ((dans le cadre de [l']activité»de cette organisation.

20. La Constitution de l'OMS a étéadoptéeet ouverte à signature le
22juillet 1946; elle est entréeen vigueur le7 avril 1948et a étéamendée

en 1960, 1975, 1977, 1984et 1994.
Les fonctions attribuées àl'Organisation sont énumérées en vingt-deux
points (points a) à v)) à l'article 2 de sa Constitution. Aucun de ces
points ne vise expressément la licéité d'une quelconque activité dange- has recognized that the Charter is a multilateral treaty, albeit a
treaty having certain special characteristics." (Certain Expenses of
the United Nations (Article 17,paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advi-
sory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1962, p. 157.)
But the constituent instruments of international organizations are also

treaties of a particular type; their object is to create new subjects of law
endowed with a certain autonomy, to which the parties entrust the task
of realizing common goals. Such treaties can raise specificproblems of
interpretation owing, inter alia, to their character which is conventional
and at the same time institutional; the very nature of the organization
created, the objectives which have been assigned to it by its founders, the
imperatives associated with the effectiveperformance of its functions, as
wellas its own practice, are al1elements which may deserve special atten-
tion when the time comes to interpret these constituent treaties.
According to the customary rule of interpretation as expressed in
Article 31 of the 1969 Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties, the
terms of a treaty must be interpreted "in their context and in the light
of its object and purpose" and there shall be

"taken into account, together with the context:
.............................

(b) any subsequent practice in the application of the treaty which
establishes the agreement of the parties regarding itsinterpreta-
tion".
The Court has had occasion to apply this rule of interpretation several
times (see Arbitral Award of 31 July 1989 (Guinea-Bissau v. Senegal),
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1991, pp. 69-70, para. 48; Land, Island and
Maritime Frontier Dispute (El Salvador/Honduras: Nicaragua interven-
ing), Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1992, pp. 582-583,para. 373, and p. 586,
para. 380; Territorial Dispute (Libyan Arab Jamahiriya/Chad), Judg-

ment, I.C.J. Reports 1994, pp. 21-22, para. 41; Maritime Delimitation
and Territorial Questions between Qatar and Bahrain (Qatar v. Bah-
rain), Jurisdiction and Admissibility, Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1995,
p. 18,para. 33); it will also apply it in this case for the purpose of deter-
mining whether, according to the WHO Constitution, the question to
which it has been asked to reply arises "within the scope of [the] activi-
ties" of that Organization.

20. The WHO Constitution was adopted and opened for signature on
22 July 1946; it entered into force on 7 April 1948and was amended in
1960, 1975,1977, 1984and 1994.
The functions attributed to the Organization are listed in 22 subpara-
graphs (subparagraphs (a) to (v)) in Article 2 of its Constitution. None
of these subparagraphs expressly refers to the legality of any activityreuse pour la santé;et aucune des fonctions de l'OMS n'y est rendue tri-
butaire de la licéité dessituations qui lui imposent d'agir. Il est par
ailleurs précisédans la phrase introductive de l'article 2 que l'Organisa-
tion exerce ses fonctions «pour atteindre son but». Le but de l'Organisa-
tion est défini à l'article 1 comme étant ((d'amener tous les peuples au
niveau de santéle plus élevé possible)). Quant au préambule dela Cons-
titution, il énoncedivers principes que les Etats parties ((déclarent, en

accord avec la Charte des Nations Unies, ...[être]à la base du bonheur
des peuples, de leurs relations harmonieuses et de leur sécurité)): ainsi y
est-il notamment affirméque «[l]a possession du meilleur état de santé
qu'il est capable d'atteindre constitue l'un des droits fondamentaux de
tout être humain)) et que «[l]a santéde tous les peuples est une condition
fondamentale de la paix du monde et de la sécurité));il est en outre indi-
qué,au terme du préambule, que,

((dans le but de coopérer entre elles et avec tous autres pour amé-
liorer et protéger la santé de tous les peuples, les Parties contrac-
tantes ...établissent...l'organisation ...comme une institution spé-
cialiséeaux termes de l'article 57 de la Charte des Nations Unies)).

21. Interprétées suivantleur sens ordinaire, dans leur contexte et à la
lumièrede l'objet et du but de la Constitution de l'OMS, ainsi que de la
pratique suivie par l'organisation, les dispositions de l'article2 peuvent
êtrelues comme habilitant l'organisation à traiter des effets sur la santé
de l'utilisation d'armes nucléaires,ou de toute autre activité dangereuse,
et à prendre des mesures préventives destinées à protéger la santé des

populations au cas où de telles armes seraient utiliséesou de telles acti-
vités menées.
La question poséeen l'espèce à la Cour porte, toutefois, non SUI.les
effetsde l'utilisation d'armes nucléairessur la santé, mais surla licéitde
l'utilisation de telles armes compte tenu de leurs effets sur la santé et
l'environnenzent. Or, quels que soient ces effets, la compétence de l'OMS
pour en traiter n'est pas tributaire de la licéitédes actes qui les produi-
sent. En conséquence,il n'apparaît pas à la Cour que les dispositions de
l'article2 de la Constitution de l'OMS, interprétées suivantles critères
sus-indiqués, puissentêtrecomprises comme conférantcompétence à l'Or-
ganisation pour traiter de la licéitéde l'utilisation desarmes nucléaires,

et, dèslors, pour poser à la Cour une question à ce sujet.
22. La résolutionWHA46.40 de l'Assemblée mondialede la Santé,par
laquelle la Cour a été saisiede la présente demande d'avis, se réfère
expressément,dans son préambule, aux fonctions viséesaux points a),
k), p) et v) de l'article 2à l'examen. Cesfonctions sont ainsi définies:

«a) agir en tant qu'autorité directrice et coordonnatrice, dans le
domaine de la santé,des travaux ayant un caractère internatio-
nal;hazardous to health; and none of the functions of the WHO is dependent
upon the legality of the situations upon which it must act. Moreover, it is
stated in the introductory sentence of Article 2 that the Organization dis-
charges its functions "in order to achieve its objective". The objective of
the Organization is defined in Article 1 as being "the attainment by al1
peoples of the highest possible level of health". As for the Preamble to
the Constitution, it sets out various principles which the States parties
"declare, in conformity with the Charter of the United Nations, . . .[to
bel basic to the happiness, harmonious relations and security of al1
peoples" :hence, it is stated therein, inter alia, that "[tlhe enjoyment of
the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights
of every human being" and that "[tlhe health of al1peoples is fundamen-
ta1to the attainment of peace and security"; it is further indicated, at the
end of the Preamble that,

"for the purpose of CO-operationamong themselves and with others
to promote and protect the health of al1peoples, the Contracting
Parties . . establish . ..the .. .Organization . . .as a specialized
agency within the terms of Article 57 of the Charter of the United
Nations".

21. Interpreted in accordance with their ordinary meaning, in their
context and in the light of the object and purpose of the WHO Constitu-
tion, as well as of the practice followed by the Organization, the provi-
sions of its Article 2 may be read as authorizingthe Organization to deal
with the effects on health of the use of nuclear weapons, or of any other
hazardous activity, and to take preventive measures aimed at protecting
the health of populations in the event of such weapons being used or such
activities engaged in.

The question put to the Court in the present case relates, however, not
to the effects of the use of nuclear weapons on health, but to the legality
of the use of such weapons in view of theiv health and environmental
effects. Whatever those effects might be, the competence of the WHO to
deal with them is not dependent on the legality of the acts that caused
them. Accordingly, it does not seem to the Court that the provisions of
Article 2 of the WHO Constitution, interpreted in accordance with the
criteria referred to above, can be understood as conferring upon the
Organization a competence to address the legality of the use of nuclear
weapons, and thus in turn a competence to ask the Court about that.
22. World Health Assemblyresolution WHA46.40, by which the Court
has been seised of this request for an opinion, expressly refers, in its Pre-
amble, to the functions indicated under subparagraphs (a), (k), (p) and
(v) of Article 2 under consideration. These functions are defined as:

"(a) to act as the directing and CO-ordinatingauthority on interna-
tional health work;77 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVISCONSULTATIF)

k) proposer des conventions, accords et règlements, faire des
recommandations concernant les questions internationales de
santéet exécutertelles tâches pouvant êtreassignéesde ce fait à
l'organisation et répondant à son but;

p) étudieret faire connaître, en coopérationau besoinavec d'autres

institutions spécialisées,les techniques administratives et so-
ciales concernant l'hygiène publique etles soins médicaux pré-
ventifs et curatifs, y compris les services hospitaliers et la
sécurité sociale;
.............................
[et1

v) d'une manière générale,prendre toute mesure nécessairepour
atteindre le but assignéa l'Organisation».
De l'avis de la Cour, aucune desdites fonctions n'entretient, avec la
question qui lui a été soumise,de rapport de connexité suffisant pour
que cette question puisse êtreconsidéréecomme se posant ((dans le
cadre de [l']activité»de l'OMS. Les causes de dégradation de la santé

humaine sont nombreuses et variées; or le caractère licite ou illicite de
ces causes est par essence indifférent aux mesures que l'OMS doit en
toute hypothèse prendre pour tenter de pallier leurs effets. En particu-
lier, la licéitéou l'illicéitéde l'utilisation d'armes nucléaires ne con-
ditionne en rien les mesures spécifiques, de nature sanitaire ou autre
(études,plans, procédures, etc.),qui pourraient s'imposer pour tenter de
prévenir ou de guérir certains de leurs effets. Que des armes nucléaires
soient utilisées licitementou illicitement, leurs effets sur la santéseraient
identiques. De même,s'il est vraisemblable que l'utilisation d'armes
nucléairespourrait porter gravement atteinte à la capacitématérielle de
l'OMS de fournir tous les servicesnécessairesdans une telle éventualité,
notamment en rendant inaccessibles les zones affectées, cela ne soulève

pas de question entrant dans le cadre de l'activitéde l'Organisation au
sens du paragraphe 2 de l'article 96 de la Charte. La mention, dans la
question posée à la Cour, des effets sur la santéet I'environnement que,
selon l'OMS, l'utilisation d'une arme nucléaire aura toujours, ne fait
pas pour autant de ladite question une question relevant des fonctions
de l'OMS.
23. Cependant, dans son préambule, la résolutionWHA46.40 se réfère
à la ((préventionprimaire » en ces termes :

((Rappelant que la prévention primaire est le seul moyen appro-
prié de maîtriser les effets sur la santéet I'environnement de'utilisa-
tion d'armes nucléaires ;

'Voir Effets de la guerre nucléairesur la santéet les services de santé(2' éd.),
Genève,Organisation mondiale de la Santé,1987.

15 (k) to propose conventions, agreements and regulations, and make
recommendations with respect to international health matters
and to perform such duties as may be assigned thereby to the
Organization and are consistent with its objective;
.............................
(p) to study and report on, in CO-operationwith other specialized
agencies where necessary,administrative and social techniques

affecting public health and medical care from preventive and
curative points of view, including hospital services and social
security ;
............................
tandl
(v) generally to take al1necessary action to attain the objective of
the Organization."

In the view of the Court, none of these functions has a sufficientconnec-
tion with the question before it for that question to be capable of
being considered as arising "within the scope of [the] activities" of the
WHO. The causes of the deterioration of human health are numerous
and varied; and the legal or illegal character of these causes is essen-
tially immaterial to the measures which the WHO must in any case
take in an attempt to remedy their effects. In particular, the legality or
illegality of the use of nuclear weapons in no way determines the spe-
cificmeasures, regarding health or otherwise (studies, plans, procedures,

etc.), which could be necessary in order to seek to prevent or cure some
of their effects. Whether nuclear weapons are used legally or illegally,
their effects on health would be the same. Similarly, while it is probable
that the use of nuclear weapons might seriously prejudice the WHO's
material capability to deliver al1the necessary services insuch an event-
uality, for example, by making the affected areas inaccessible, this does
not raise an issue falling within the scope of the Organization's activities
within the meaning of Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter. The ref-
erence in the question put to the Court to the health and environmental
effects, which according to the WHO the use of a nuclear weapon will
always occasion, does not make the question one that falls within the
WHO's functions.

23. However, in its Preamble, resolution WHA46.40 refers to "pri-

mary prevention" in the following terms :
"Recalling that primary prevention is the only appropriate means
to deal with the health and environmental effects of the use of
nuclear weapons2;

See Effects of Nucbur War on Heultlz und Heultlz Services (2nd ed.), Geneva,
WHO, 1987. Consciente du fait que la prévention primaire des risques pour la
santéconstituéspar les armes nucléairessuppose de précisercom-
ment la question de leur utilisation est envisagéeau regard du droit
international et qu'au cours des quarante-huit dernières annéesles
Etats Membres ont exprimé des vues très divergentesquant à la
licéitde l'utilisation des armes nucléaires;
..»

Le document intitulé Effets de la guerre nucléairesur la santéet les sev-
vices de santé, auquel renvoie ledit préambule, est un rapport établien
1987 par le groupe de gestion créépar le Directeur généralde l'OMS
Dour assurer le suivi de la résolution WHA36.28 de l'Assembléemondiale
de la Santé;ce rapport met à jour un autre rapport sur le mêmesujet, qui
avait été établein 1983par un comitéinternational d'experts en sciences
médicaleset santé publique, et dont les conclusions avaient étéapprou-
véespar l'Assembléedans sa résolution sus-indiquée. Commeplusieurs
Etats l'ont fait observer au cours de la présente procédure,le groupe de

gestion souligne effectivement dans son rapport de 1987 que «la seule
façon de parer aux effets qu'un conflit nucléaire pourrait avoir sur la
santépasse par la prévention primaire, c'est-à-dire la prévention de la
guerre nucléaire)) (résumé, p. 5, point 7). Toutefois, le groupe précise
qu'il ne lui ((appartient pas de définirles mesures politiques qui permet-
traient d'écarter cette menace ni les mesures de prévention à prendre))
(ibid., point 8); et le groupe de conclure:

«L70MS peut pourtant apporter une contribution importante à
cet effort en diffusant systématiquement des informations sur les
conséquencessanitaires que pourrait avoir un conflit nucléaire et en
élargissantet en intensifiant la coopération internationale en matière
de santé.))(Ibid., point 9.)
24. L'OMS ne saurait avoir compétence que pour mener des actions

de ((prévention primaire)) entrant dans les fonctions de l'Organisation
définiesà l'article 2 de sa Constitution. En conséquence,les références
à ce type de prévention qui sont faites dans le préambule de la résolu-
tion WHA46.40 et le lien qui y est suggéré avecla question de la licéité
de l'utilisation des armes nucléaires neremettent pas en cause la conclu-
sion à laquelle la Cour est parvenue au paragraphe 22 ci-dessus.
25. La Cour a à peine besoin de rappeler que les organisations inter-
nationales sont des sujets de droit international qui ne jouissent pas,à
l'instar des Etats, de compétences générales. Leo srganisations interna-
tionales sont régiespar le ((principe de spécialité,'est-à-dire dotées par
les Etats qui les créent decompétencesd'attribution dont les limites sont
fonction des intérêts communs queceux-ci leur donnent pour mission de
promouvoir. La Cour permanente de Justice internationale s'est référée à

ce principe de base dans les termes suivants:
«Comme la Commission européenne n'est pas un Etat, mais une
institution internationale pourvue d'un objet spécial,elle n'a que les Realizing that primary prevention of the health hazards of nuclear
weapons requires clarity about the status in international law of
their use, and that over the last 48 years marked differences of
opinion have been expressed byMember States about the lawfulness
of the use of nuclear weapons;

The document entitled Effects of Nuclear War on Health and Health
Services, to which the Preamble refers, is a report prepared in 1987by the
Management Group created by the Director-General of the WHO in
Dursuance of World Health Assemblv resolution WHA36.28 :this reDort
updates another report on the same topic, which had been prepared in
1983 by an international committee of experts in medical sciences and
public health, and whose conclusions had been approved by the Assem-
bly in its above-mentioned resolution. As several States have observed

during the present proceedings, the Management Group does indeed
emphasize in its 1987report that "the only approach to the treatment of
health effects of nuclear warfare is primary prevention, that is, the pre-
vention of nuclear war" (Summary, p. 5, para. 7). However, the Group
states that "it is not for [it] to outline the political steps by which this
threat can be removed or the preventive measures to be implemented"
(ibid., para. 8); and the Group concludes:

"However, WHO can make important contributions to this pro-
cess by systematically distributing information on the health conse-
quences of nuclear warfare and by expanding and intensifying inter-
national cooperation in the field of health."(Ibid., para. 9.)

24. The WHO could only be competent to take those actions of "pri-

mary prevention" which fa11within the functions of the Organization as
defined in Article 2 of its Constitution. In consequence, the references to
this type of prevention which are made in the Preamble to resolution
WHA46.40 and the link there suggested with the question of the legality
of the use of nuclear weapons do not affect the conclusions reached by
the Court in paragraph 22 above.
25. The Court need hardly point out that international organizations
are subjects of international law which do not, unlike States, possess a
general competence. International organizations are governed by the
"principle of speciality", that is to say, they are invested by the States
which create them with powers, the limits of which are a function of the
common interests whose promotion those States entrust to them. The
Permanent Court of International Justice referred to this basic principle
in the following terms:

"As the European Commission is not a State, but an international
institution with a special purpose, it only has the functions bestowed79 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVIS CONSULTATIF)

attributions aue lui confèrele Statut définit,fLour lui Dermettre de
remplir cet objet; mais elle a compétencepour exercer ces fonctions
dans leur plénitude,pour autant que le Statut ne lui impose pas de
restrictions.»(Compétencede la Commission européennedu Danube,
avis consultut$ 1927, C.P.J.I. sérieB no 14, p. 64.)

Les compétences conféréeasux organisations internationales font nor-
malement l'objet d'une formulation expresse dans leur acte constitutif.
Néanmoins, les exigences de la vie internationale peuvent mettre en lu-
mière la nécessitépour les organisations de disposer, aux fins d'atteindre
leurs buts, de compétencessubsidiaires non expressément prévuesdans

les textes fondamentaux qui gouvernent leur activité. Il est généralement
admis que les organisations internationales peuvent exercer de tels pou-
voirs dits «implicites». S'agissant de l'organisation des Nations Unies,
la Cour s'est à cet égardexpriméecomme suit:

«Selon le droit international, l'organisation doit êtreconsidérée
comme possédant ces pouvoirs qui, s'ils ne sont pas expressément
énoncésdans la Charte, sont, par une conséquence nécessaire,
conférés à l'organisation en tant qu'essentielsà l'exercicedes fonc-
tions de celle-ci. Ce principe de droit a éappliqué à l'organisation
internationale du Travail par la Cour permanente de Justice inter-
nationale dans son avis consultatifno 13,du 23juillet 1926(SérieB,
no 13, p. 18), et il doit l'êtreaux Nations Unies.» (Réparationdes
dommages subis au service desNations Unies,avis consultut$ C.I.J.
Recueil 1949, p. 182-183 ; cf. Effet dejugements du Tribunal admi-

nistratif des Nations Uniesaccordant indemnité,C.I.J. Recueil 1954,
p. 57.)
De l'avisde la Cour, reconnaître à l'OMS la compétence detraiter de
la licéitéde l'utilisation des armes nucléaires- mêmecompte tenu de
l'effet de ces armes sur la santé et l'environnement - équivaudrait a

ignorer le principe de spécialité; unetelle compétencene saurait en effet
êtreconsidéréecomme nécessairement impliquéepar la Constitution de
l'organisation au vu des buts qui ont étéassignés à cette dernièrepar ses
Etats membres.
26. L'OMS est au surplus une organisation internationale d'une na-
ture particulière. Ainsique l'annonce le préambule etque le confirme l'ar-
ticle 69 de sa Constitution, l'«Organisation est rattachée aux Nations
Unies comme une des institutions spécialiséesprévues à l'article 57 de la
Charte desNations Unies)).L'article57de la Charte définitles((institutions

spécialisées»dans les termes suivants:
«1. Les diverses institutions spécialisées créépeasr accords inter-
gouvernementaux et pourvues, aux termes de leurs statuts, d'attri-
butions internationales étendues dans les domaines économique,

social, de la culture intellectuelle et de l'éducation,de la santépu-
blique et autres domaines connexes, sont reliées à l'Organisation
conformémentaux dispositions de l'article 63. upon it by the Definitive Statute with a viewto the fulfilment of that
purpose, but it has power to exercise these functions to their full
extent, in so far as theStatute does not impose restrictions upon it."
(Jurisdiction of the European Commission of the Danube, Advisory
Opinion, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 14, p. 64.)

The powers conferred on international organizations are normally the
subject of an express statement in their constituent instruments. Never-
theless, the necessities of international life may point to the need for
organizations, in order to achieve their objectives, to possess subsidiary
powers which are not expressly provided for in the basic instruments
which govern their activities. It is generally accepted that international
organizations can exercise such powers, known as "implied" powers. As
far as the United Nations is concerned, the Court has expressed itself in
the following terms in this respect:

"Under international law, the Organization must be deemed to
have those powers which, though not expressly provided in the
Charter, are conferred upon it by necessary implication as being
essential to the performance of its duties. This principle of law was
applied by the Permanent Court of International Justice to the Inter-
national Labour Organization in its Advisory Opinion No. 13
of July 23rd, 1926(Series B, No. 13,p. 18),and must be applied to
the United Nations." (Reparationfor Injuries Suffered in the Service

of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1949,
pp. 182-183; cf. Effect of Awavds of Compensation Made by the
United Nations Administrative Tribunal, Advisory Opinion, I.C. J.
Reports 1954, p. 57.)
In the opinion of the Court, to ascribe to the WHO the competence to
address the legality of the use of nuclear weapons - even in view of their
health and environmental effects - would be tantamount to disregarding

the principle of speciality; for such competence could not be deemed a
necessary implication of the Constitution of the Organization in the light
of the purposes assigned to it by its member States.

26. The World Health Organization is, moreover, an international
organization of a particular kind. As indicated in the Preamble and con-
firmed by Article 69 of its Constitution, "the Organization shall be
brought into relation with the United Nations as one of the specialized
agencies referred to in Article 57 of the Charter of the United Nations".
Article 57 of the Charter defines "specialized agencies" as follows:

"1. The various specialized agencies, established by intergovern-
mental agreement and having wide international responsibilities, as
defined in their basic instruments, in economic, social, cultural, edu-
cational, health, and related fields, shall be brought into relationship
with the United Nations in accordance with the provisions of
Article 63.80 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVIS CONSULTATIF)

2. Les institutions ainsi reliéàsl'Organisation sont désignées ci-
après par l'expression «institutions spécialisé).
L'article 58 de la Charte porte:

((L'Organisation fait des recommandations en vue de coordonner
les programmes et activités desinstitutions spécialisée».

Quant à l'article 63 de la Charte, il précise:
«1. Le Conseil économiqueet social peut conclure, avectoute ins-
titution visée l'article 57, des accords fixant lesconditions dans les-
quellescette institution sera reliée'Organisation. Ces accords sont
soumis à l'approbation de l'Assemblée générale.

2. Il peut coordonner l'activité desinstitutions spécialisées ense
concertant avec elles, en leur adressant des recommandations, ainsi
qu'en adressant des recommandations à l'Assemblée générae lt aux
Membres des Nations Unies. »
Comme le montrent ces dispositions, la Charte des Nations Unies a jeté
les bases d'un «système» tendant à organiser la coopération internatio-

nale de façon cohérentepar le rattachement à l'organisation des Nations
Unies, dotéede compétencesde portée générale,de diverses organisa-
tions autonomes et complémentaires, dotéesde compétences sectorielles.
L'exercicede ces compétencespar les organisations appartenant au «sys-
tème desNations Unies» est coordonné, notamment, par les accords de
liaison conclus entre l'ONU et chacune des institutions spécialisées.our
ce qui est de l'OMS, l'accord du 10juillet 1948entrel'ONU et cette orga-
nisation renvoie lui-mêmee ,n son article 1àla Constitution de cette der-
nièredans les termes qui suivent:

((L'Organisation mondiale de la Santéest reconnue par l'organi-
sation des Nations Unies comme étant l'institution spécialisée
chargée deprendre toutes les mesures conformes aux termes de sa
Constitution en vue d'atteindre les buts fixéspar cet acte.

Il résultede l'ensemble des textessusmentionnés quela Constitution de
l'OMS ne peut être interprétée e,n ce qui concerne les compétencesattri-
buées à cette organisation, qu'en tenant dûment compte, non seulement
du principe général despécialitém , ais encore de la logique du système
global envisagépar la Charte. Si, conformémentaux règlesqui sous-ten-
dent ce système, l'OMS est pourvue, en vertu de l'article 57 de la Charte,
«d'attributions internationales étendues)), celles-ci sont nécessairement
limitéesau domaine ccdela santépublique)) et ne sauraient empiéter sur
celles d'autres composantes du système desNations Unies. Or il ne fait
pas de doute que les questions touchant au recours àla force,à la régle-
mentation des armements et au désarmementsont du ressort de l'Orga-

nisation des Nations Unies et échappent àla compétencedes institutions
spécialiséesT. oute autre conclusion viderait d'ailleurs trèslargement de
son contenu la notion d'institution spécialisée;n imagine en effetmal ce 2. Such agencies thus brought into relationship with the United
Nations are hereinafter referred to as 'specialized agencies'."
Article 58 of the Charter reads:

"The Organization shall make recommendations for the co-ordi-
nation of the policies and activities of the specialized agencies."
Article 63 of the Charter then provides:

"1. The Economic and Social Council may enter into agreements
with any of the agencies referred to in Article 57, defining the terms
on which the agency concerned shall be brought into relationship
with the United Nations. Such agreements shall be subject to
approval by the General Assembly.
2. It rnay CO-ordinatethe activities of the specialized agencies
through consultation with and recommendations to such agencies
and through recommendations to the General Assembly and to the
Members of the United Nations."

As these provisions demonstrate, the Charter of the United Nations laid
the basis of a "system" designedto organize international CO-operationin
a coherent fashion by bringing the United Nations, invested with powers
of general scope,into relationship with various autonomous and comple-
mentary organizations, invested with sectorial powers. The exercise of
these powers by the organizations belonging to the "United Nations sys-
tem" is CO-ordinated,notably, by the relationship agreements concluded
between the United Nations and each of the specialized agencies. In the
case of the WHO, the agreement of 10 July 1948 between the United
Nations and that Organization actually refers to the WHO Constitution
in the following terms in Article 1:

"The United Nations recognizes the World Health Organization
as the specialized agency responsible for taking such action as may
be appropriate under its Constitution for the accomplishment of the
objectives setforth therein."
It follows from the various instruments mentioned above that the
WHO Constitution can only be interpreted, as far as the powers con-

ferred upon that Organization are concerned, by taking due account not
only of the general principle of speciality, but also of the logic of the
overall systemcontemplated by the Charter. If, according to the rules on
which that system is based, the WHO has, by virtue of Article 57 of the
Charter, "wide international responsibilities", those responsibilities are
necessarilyrestricted to the sphere of public "health" and cannot encroach
on the responsibilities of other parts of the United Nations system. And
there is no doubt that questions concerning the use of force, the regula-
tion of armaments and disarmament are within the competence of the
United Nations and lie outside that of the specialized agencies. Besides,
any other conclusion would render virtually meaningless the notion of a
specialized agency; it is difficult to imagine what other meaning that81 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVISCONSULTATIF)

que cette notion pourrait encore signifier s'il étaitjugé suffisant,pour
qu'une organisation de cette nature soit habilitéà traiter de la licédeé
l'utilisation decertainesarmes,quecetteutilisation soit susceptibled'avoir
des effets sur ses objectifs.est par suite difficilede soutenir qu'en auto-
risant diverses institutions spécialiséàs demander des avis à la Cour
conformémentau paragraphe 2 de l'article 96 de la Charte l'Assemblée
générale ait entendu leur permettre de saisir la Cour de questions relevant
de la compétenced'attribution de l'organisation des Nations Unies.
Pour l'ensemble de ces motifs, la Cour estime que la question sur
laquelle porte la demande d'avis consultatif que l'OMS lui a soumise ne
se pose pas ((dans le cadre de [l']activité»de cette organisation tel que
définipar sa Constitution.

27. L'examende lapratique de l'OMSconfirmecesconclusions. Aucun
des rapports et résolutions visésdans le préambule de la résolution
WHA46.40 de l'Assemblée mondiale de la Santéne participent d'une pra-
tique de l'OMS dans le domaine de la licéitéde l'utilisation des armes
nucléaires. Lerapport du Directeur général(doc. A46/30), viséau troi-
sièmealinéa dudit préambule, les résolutionsWHA34.38 et WHA36.28
précitées,ainsi que la résolutionWHA40.24, toutes viséesau quatrième
alinéa,et lerapport sus-indiquédu groupe de gestion de 1987auquel ren-
voient le cinquièmeet le septièmealinéa,ont exclusivement trait, le pre-
mier, aux effetsdes armes nucléairessur la santé et l'environnement et,

les autres, auxeffetsde la guerre nucléairesur la santéet les services de
santé.Quant aux résolutions WHA42.26et WHA45.31, viséesau sixième
alinéadu préambule dela résolutionWHA46.40, la premièreconcerne la
contribution de l'OMS aux efforts internationaux en faveur d'un déve-
loppement durable et la seconde les effets de la dégradationdeI'environ-
nement sur la santé. Aucun de ces rapports et résolutionsne traite de la
licéitde l'utilisation des armes nucléaires.

La résolution WHA46.40elle-mêmea ,doptée,non sans opposition, dès
que la question de la licéide l'utilisation des armes nucléairesa ésou-
levéeau sein de l'OMS, ne saurait êtreconsidéréecomme exprimant ou
constituant à elle seule une pratique qui établirait un accord entre les
Etats membres de l'organisation pour interprétersa Constitution comme

l'habilitant traiter de la question de la licéide l'utilisation des armes
nucléaires.
La Cour ne trouve nulle part ailleurs de pratique de cette nature. Sem-
blable pratique ne saurait être déduite,n particulier, de passages isolés
de certaines résolutions del'Assembléemondiale de la Santéévoquées au
cours de la présenteprocédure,telles que la résolution WHA15.51 rela-
tive au rôle du médecindans le maintien et le développement dela paix,
la résolutionWHA22.58 afférente à lacoopérationentre l'OMS et l'ONU
sur la question des armes chimiques et bactériologiques et les consé-notion could have if such an organization need only show that the use of
certain weapons could affect its objectives inorder to be empowered to
concern itself with the legality of such use. It is therefore difficult to
maintain that, by authorizing various specialized agencies to request
opinions from the Court under Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter,
the General Assembly intended to allow them to seisethe Court of ques-
tions belonging within the competence of the United Nations.

For al1these reasons, the Court considers that the question raised in
the request for an advisory opinion submitted to it by the WHO does not
arise "within the scope of [the]activities" of that Organization as defined
by its Constitution.

27. A consideration of the practice of the WHO bears out these con-
clusions.None of the reports and resolutions referred to in the Preamble

to World Health Assembly resolution WHA46.40 is in the nature of a
practice of the WHO in regard to the legality of the threat or use of
nuclear weapons. The Report of the Director-General (doc. A46/30),
referred to in the third paragraph of the Preamble, the aforementioned
resolutions WHA34.38 and WHA36.28, as wellas resolution WHA40.24,
al1of which are referred to in the fourth paragraph, as well as the above-
mentioned report of the Management Group of 1987to which reference
is made in the fifth and seventh paragraphs, deal exclusively, in the case
of the first, with the health and environmental effects of nuclear weap-
ons, and in the case of the remainder, with the effects of nuclear weapons
on health and health services. As regards resolutions WHA42.26 and
WHA45.31, referred to in the sixth paragraph of the Preamble to resolu-
tion WHA46.40, the first concerns the WHO'Scontribution to interna-
tional efforts towards sustainable development and the second deals with
the effectson health of environmental degradation. None of these reports
and resolutions deals with the legality of the use of nuclear weapons.
Resolution WHA46.40 itself, adopted, not without opposition,as soon
as the question of the legality of the use of nuclear weapons was raised at

the WHO, could not be taken to express or to amount on its own to a
practice establishing an agreement between the members of the Organiza-
tion to interpret its Constitution as empowering it to address the question
of the legality of the use of nuclear weapons.

Nowhere else does the Court find any practice of this kind. In particu-
lar, such a practice cannot be inferred from isolated passages of certain
resolutions of the World Health Assembly cited during the present pro-
ceedings, such as resolution WHA15.51 on the role of the physician in
the preservation and development of peace, resolution WHA22.58 con-
cerning CO-operation between the WHO and the United Nations in
regard to chemical and bacteriological weapons and the effects of their 82 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVISCONSULTATIF)

quences de leur emploi éventuel,ou la résolution WHA42.24 concernant
l'embargo imposé sur les fournitures médicalespour des raisons poli-
tiques et les restrictionsleur circulation. La Cour a au demeurant noté
la prise en compte régulière,par l'OMS, de diverses normes de droit in-
ternational dans l'exercice de ses fonctions, sa participationcertaines
actions entreprises dans le domaine juridique au niveau international,à
l'effet, par exemple, d'élaborerun code international de pratique sur les
mouvements transfrontières des déchetsradioactifs, ainsi que sa partici-
pation à certaines conférencesinternationales visantà développer pro-

gressivement et à codifier le droit international. Que l'OMS, en tant que
sujet de droit international, soit amenée à en appliquer les règles ou
s'intéresseàleur développement, n'a certes rien de surprenant; mais il ne
s'ensuit pas qu'elle ait reçu mandat, au-delà des termes de sa Constitu-
tion, pour traiter elle-mêmede la licéitéou de l'illicéitde l'utilisation
d'armements au cours d'hostilités.

28. Reste àexaminer si l'insertion des mots «y compris la Constitution
de l'OMS» dans la question soumise à la Cour (qui tend essentiellement

à l'obtention d'un avis sur la licéitéde l'utilisation des armes nucléaires
en général)autoriserait celle-cidonner un avis sur la licéitde l'utilisa-
tion des armes nucléairespar référenceau passage de la question qui vise
la Constitution de l'OMS. La Cour doit répondre par la négative. En
effet, l'OMS n'est pas habilitéeà demander un avis portant sur l'inter-
prétation de sa Constitution à l'égard de questions qui se situent en
dehors du cadre de ses fonctions.

29. D'autres arguments ont cependant encore étéavancésdans la pro-

cédurepour fonder la compétencede la Cour en l'espèce.
On a ainsi fait valoir que, la résolution WHA46.40 de l'Assemblée
mondiale de la Santé ayant étéadoptée àla majoritérequise, elle devait
((êtreprésumée valable))(cf. Conséquencesjuridiques pour leE stats de la
présencecontinue de l'Afrique du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain)
nonobstant la résolution276 (1970) du Conseil desécurité,avis consul-
tatg C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 22, par. 20). La Cour observeraà cet égard
que la question de savoir si une résolution a étérégulièrementadoptée
d'un point de vue procédural et la question de savoir si cette résolution a
étéadoptée intra vires sont deux questions différentes. Le simple fait,
pour une majorité d'Etats, d'avoir voté une résolution en respectant
toutes les règlesde forme pertinentes ne saurait, en soi, suffirepurer

les éventuelsvices de fond qui, tel l'excèsde pouvoir, l'entacheraient.

Comme la Cour l'a dit, «chaque organe doit ...,tout au moins en pre-
mier lieu, déterminer sa propre compétence» (Certaines dépensesdespossible use, and resolution WHA42.24 concerning the embargo placed
on medical supplies for political reasons and restrictions on their move-
ment. TheCourt has also noted that the WHO regularly takes account of
various rules of international law in the exercise of its functions; that it
participates in certain activities undertaken in the legal sphere at the
international level - for example, for the purpose of drawing up an
international code of practice on transboundary movements of radio-

active waste; and that it participates in certain international conferences
for the progressive development and codification of international law.
That the WHO, as a subject of international law, should be led to apply
the rules of international law or concern itself with their development is
in no way surprising; but it does not follow that it has received a man-
date, beyond the terms of its Constitution, itself to address the legality
or illegality of the use of weaponry in hostilities.

28. It remains to be considered whether the insertion of the words
"including the WHO Constitution" in the question put to the Court
(which essentially seeks an opinion on the legality of the use of nuclear

weapons in general) could allow it to offer an opinion on the legality of
the use of nuclear weapons by reference to the passage in the question
concerning the WHO Constitution. The Court must answer in the nega-
tive. Indeed, the WHO is not empowered to seek an opinion on the inter-
pretation of its Constitution in relation to mattersoutside the scope of its
functions.

29. Other arguments have nevertheless been put forward in the pro-
ceedings to found the jurisdiction of the Court in the present case.
It has thus been argued that World Health Assembly resolution
WHA46.40, having been adopted by the requisite majority, "must be pre-
sumed to have been validly adopted" (cf. Legal Consequeneesfor States

of the Continued Presence of South Afvica in Namibia (South West
Afiica) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution 276 (1970), Advi-
sory Opinion, I.C.J. Reports 1971, p. 22, para. 20). The Court would
observe in this respect that the question whether a resolution has been
duly adopted from a procedural point of view and the question whether
that resolution has been adopted intra vires are two separate issues. The
mere fact that a majority of States, in voting on a resolution, have com-
plied with al1the relevant rules of form cannot in itself sufficeto remedy
any fundamental defects, such as acting ultra vires,with which the resolu-
tion might be afflicted.
As the Court has stated, "each organ must, in the first place at least,
determine its own jurisdiction" (Certain Expenses of the United NationsNations Unies (article 17, pavagvaphe 2, de la Charte), avis consultut$
C.I.J. Recueil 1962, p. 168). Il appartenait donc assurément à l'Assem-
bléemondiale de la Santéde déciderde sa compétence - et, par le fait
même,de celle de l'OMS - pour soumettre à la Cour une demande
d'avisconsultatif sur la question considérée,comptetenu des termes de la
Constitution de l'organisation et de ceux de l'accord du 10juillet 1948
qui relie celle-cil'ONU. Mais il incombe de la mêmemanière àla Cour
de s'assurer que les conditions auxquelles est subordonnée sa propre
compétencepour donner l'avis sollicitésont remplies; par l'effet du ren-

voi fait, respectivement, par le paragraphe2 de l'article 96 de la Charte
au «cadre de [l']activité»de l'Organisation et par le paragraphe 2 de
l'article de l'accord du 10juillet 1948 à sa ((compétence)),la Cour se
trouve égalementdans l'obligation, en l'espèce,d'interpréter la Constitu-
tion de l'OMS.
L'exercice des fonctions qui lui ont été confiéea sux termes du para-
graphe 1 de l'article 65 de son Statut exige qu'elle fournisse une telle
interprétation, indépendamment de toute mise en Œuvre du mécanisme
spécifiquede recours que l'article 75 de ladite Constitution réserveaux
cas ou se pose une question ou surgit un différendentre Etats concer-
nant l'interprétation ou l'application de cet instrument; et la Cour par-

vient, ce faisant, des conclusions différentes decelles auxquelles avait
abouti l'Assembléemondiale de la Santélors de l'adoption de sa réso-
lution WHA46.40.

30. La Cour ne peut davantage accepter l'argument selon lequel
l'Assemblée générale deN sations Unies, en tant que source d'ou l'OMS
tire son pouvoir de demander des avis consultatifs, aurait, par sa résolu-
tion 49175K, confirméla compétence de cette organisation pour solliciter
un avis sur la question soumise à la Cour. Au dernier alinéa du préam-

bule de sa résolution sus-indiquée, l'Assemblée générale
(([s'est]félicit[]e la résolution46140de l'Assembléede l'organisa-
tion mondiale de la Santé,en date du 14 mai 1993, dans laquelle
l'organisation demande à la Cour internationale de Justice de don-
ner un avis consultatif sur la question de savoir si l'utilisation

d'armes nucléairespar un Etat au cours d'une guerre ou d'un autre
conflit arméconstituerait une violation de ses obligations au regard
du droit international,y compris la Constitution de l'organisation
mondiale de la Santé)).
En s'exprimant de la sorte, l'Assemblée généralaemanifestement traduit

la volontéd'une majorité d'Etats de la voir apporter son soutien politique
à la démarche de l'OMS, dont elle s'est félicitéeL. a Cour ne considère
pas toutefois que, ce faisant, l'Assembléeait aussi entendu se prononcer
sur la compétence de l'OMS pour demander un avis sur la question
posée.Au surplus, l'Assemblée généraln e'aurait pu, à l'évidence,avoir (Article 17, paragraph 2, of the Charter), Advisory Opinion, 1.C.J.
Reports 1962, p. 168).It was therefore certainly a matter for the World
Health Assembly to decide on its competence - and, thereby, that of the
WHO - to submit a request to the Court for an advisory opinion on the
question under consideration, having regard to the terms of the Constitu-
tion of the Organization and those of the Agreement of 10 July 1948
bringing it into relationship with the United Nations. But likewise it is

incumbent on the Court to satisfy itself that the conditions governing its
own competence to give the opinion requested are met; through the ref-
erence made, respectively, by Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter to
the "scope of [the]activities" ofthe Organization and by Article X, para-
graph 2, of the Agreement of 10July 1948to its "competence", the Court
also finds itself obliged, in the present case, to interpret the Constitution
of the WHO.
The exercise of the functions entrusted to the Court under Article 65,
paragraph 1, of its Statute requires it to furnish such an interpretation,
independently of any operation of the specificrecourse mechanism which
Article 75 of the WHO Constitution reserves for cases in which a ques-
tion or dispute arises between States concerning the interpretation or
application of that instrument; and in doing so the Court arrives at dif-

ferent conclusions from those reached by the World Health Assembly
when it adopted resolution WHA46.40.

30. Nor can the Court accept the argument that the General Assembly
of the United Nations, as the source from which the WHO derives its
power to request advisory opinions, has, in its resolution 49175K, con-
firmed the competence of that organization to request an opinion on the
question submitted to the Court. In the last preambular paragraph of
that resolution, the General Assembly

"[welcomed]resolution 46140of 14May 1993of the Assembly of the
World Health Organization, in which the organization requested the
International Court of Justice to givean advisory opinion on whether
the use of nuclear weapons by a State in war or other armed conflict
would be a breach of its obligations under international law, includ-
ing the Constitution of the World Health Organization".

In expressing this opinion, the General Assembly clearly reflected the
wish of a majority of States that the Assembly should lend its political
support to the action taken by the WHO, which it welcomed. However,
the Court does not consider that, in doing so, the General Assembly
meant to pass upon the competence of the WHO to request an opinion
on the question raised. Moreover, the General Assembly could evidentlyeu l'intention de méconnaître les limites dans lesquelles le paragraphe 2
de l'article 96 de la Charte lui permet d'autoriser les institutions spécia-
liséesà demander des avis à la Cour, limites qui ont étéréaffirméesà
l'article X de l'accord de liaison du 10juillet 1948.

31. Etant Darvenue à la conclusion aue la demande d'avis consultatif
présentéepar l'OMS ne porte pas sur une question qui se pose ((dans le
cadre de [l']activité» de cette organisation conformément au para-

graphe 2 de l'article 96 de la Charte, la Cour constate qu'une condition
essentielle pour fonder sa compétenceen l'espècefait défaut et qu'elle ne
peut, par suite, donner l'avis sollicité.En conséquence,la Cour n'a pas
examiner les arguments qui ont été développésdevant elle concernant
l'exercice deson pouvoir discrétionnaire de donner un avis.

32. Par ces motifs.

Par onze voix contre trois,

Dit qu'elle nepeut donner l'avis consultatif qui lui a étédemandé aux
termes de la résolutionWHA46.40 de l'Assembléemondiale de la Santé
en date du 14mai 1993.

POUR: M. Bedjaoui,Président; M.Schwebel, Vice-Président;MM. Oda,
Guillaume, Ranjeva,Herczegh, Shi, Fleischhauer,Vereshchetin,Ferrari
Bravo,Mme Higginsjuges;
CONTRE: MM. Shahabuddeen,Weeramantry,Koroma, juges.

Fait en français et en anglais, le texte français faisant foi, au Palais de
la Paix,àLa Haye, le huit juillet mil neuf cent quatre-vingt-seize, en trois
exemplaires, dont l'un restera déposéaux archives de la Cour et les
autres seront transmis respectivement au Secrétairegénéralde l'organi-
sation des Nations Unies et au Directeur généralde l'organisation mon-
diale de la Santé.

Le Président,

(SignéM )ohammed BEDJAOUI.

Le Greffier,
(Signé )duardo VALENCIA-OSPINAnot have intended to disregard the limits within which Article 96, para-
graph 2, of the Charter allows it to authorize the specialized agencies

to request opinions from the Court - limits which were reaffirmed in
Article X of the relationship agreement of 10 July 1948.

31. Having arrived at the viewthat the request for an advisory opinion
submitted by the WHO does not relate to a question which arises "within
the scope of [the] activities" of that Organization in accordance with
Article 96, paragraph 2, of the Charter, the Court finds that an essential
condition of founding its jurisdiction in the present case is absent and
that itcannot, accordingly, give the opinion requested. Consequently, the
Court is not called upon to examine the arguments which were laid
before it with regard to the exercise of its discretionary power to give an

opinion.

32. For these reasons.

By eleven votes to three,

Finds that it is not able to give the advisory opinion which was
requested of it under World Health Assembly resolution WHA46.40
dated 14 May 1993.
IN FAVOUR: President Bedjaoui; Vice-Pvesident Schwebel; Judges Oda,
Guillaume, Ranjeva, Herczegh, Shi, Fleischhauer, VereshchetinF ,errari
Bravo, Higgins;

AGAINST :Judges Shahabuddeen,Weeramantry,Koroma.

Done in French and in English, the French text being authoritative, at
the Peace Palace, The Hague, this eighth day of July, one thousand nine
hundred and ninety-six, in three copies, one of which will be placed in the
archives of the Court and the others transmitted to the Secretary-General
of the United Nations and the Director-General of the World Health
Organization, respectively.

(Signed) Mohammed BEDJAOUI,

President.
(Signed) Eduardo VALENCIA-OSPINA,

Registrar.85 UTILISATION DES ARMES NUCLÉAIRES (AVIS CONSULTATIF)

MM. RANJEVA et FERRARBI RAVO j,ges, joignent des déclaratàons
l'avis consultatif.

M. ODA,juge, jointàl'avisconsultatif l'exposéde son opinion indivi-
duelle.

MM. SHAHABUDDEW ENE,ERAMANTR etYKOROMA j,ges, joignenà
l'avisconsultatif les exposésde leur opinion dissidente.

(Paraphé) M.B.
(Paraphé) E.V.O. Judges RANJEVand FERRARBIRAVO append declarations to the Advi-
sory Opinion of the Court.

Judge ODAappends a separate opinion to the Advisory Opinion of the
Court.

Judges SHAHABUDDE EEN, RAMANT anY KOROMA append dissent-
ing opinions to the Advisory Opinion of the Court.

(Initialled) M.B.
(Initialled) E.V.O.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996

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