Advisory Opinion of 16 October 1975

Document Number
061-19751016-ADV-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
Document File
Bilingual Document File

COUR INTERNATIONALDE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

SAHARA OCCIDENTAL

AVIS CONSULTATIFDU 16 OCTOBRE 1975

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,

ADVlSORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

WESTERN SAHARA

ADVlSORY OPINION OF 16 OCTOBER 1975 Mode officielde citation:
Sahara occidental,
avis consultatiJ;C.1.J.Rp12.il1975,

Officialcitation:
WesternSahara,
Advisoty Opinion,1.C.J.Reports 1975,p. 12.

No devente:
Salenumber 414 1 INTERNATIONAL COURT OFJUSTICE

YEAR 1975
1975
16 October
16 October 1975 GeneralList
No. 61

WESTERN SAHARA

Competence of the Corrrt tu give opinion reqirested-Propof givirlg the
opinion-Relevance oylack of consent of a State corlcerried-Opinion reqiiested
to giride Gerieral Assembly in respect of its own firtrrre actionterri-ed
torial dispirte-Questioof ascertairinient of facts-Determinatof object
of qiiestions in light of General Assembly resolrrtion 3292 (XXIX) and basic
principles governirig decolor~ization-Temporal coritest of questions.

Concept of terra nullius in Qi!estion 1-Territorpeopled by tribes-
Sigriificance of State practice ai the period concerned- Western Sahara not
treated as terranulliusin the prcc,colonization.

Mearlirigof "legal ties" irlQirestiorrII-Characterof WesterriSahara-
Morocco's claim to sovereigilty or1bnsis of ir?rmemorialpossessiori-Relevance
of special strrtctrire of Sherifian State-Evidesaid to ir~dicate interilal
display and irlternational recognitio~lof A4oroccar1sovereigrity-Sigofficance
the "Wad Noim shipwreck clairse"-Arlglo-Moroccan Agreement of 13 March
1895-Frar~co-Germari exchnrlge of letters of 4 November 1911.

The "Mairritaniarl entityW-Fearirres of the Bilad Shingi~itrelation to
the Mairritarlian entity-Crireriorl for determirling ivhetller ivhat corifror~tsthe
law is legally an entity-Mear~iriof "legal ties" rrsed in cor~jrrriz ithw
"Marrritanian entityV-Overlappir~g character of claims tu legal ties.
.Significance of purpose for 11,hichopirrion is soiight-Naof legal ties
utrd tkeir relation to the docolorrizationof Western Sahara atid the prirlciple of
self-determination.

ADVISORY OPINION

Present: President LACHS;Vice-Presider~tAMMOUN J;irdges FORSTERG,ROS,
BENGZON, PETREN O,NYEAMD A,ILLARD I, NACIO-PINT DE,CASTRO,
Mo~ozov, JIMENEZ DE ARÉCHAGA S,ir Hurnphrey WALDOCK,
NAGENDR SAINGH,RUDA; Jlrdge ad hoc BONI;Registrar AQUARONE. WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 13

Concerning certain questions relating to Western Sahara (Rio de Oro and

Sakiet El Hamra),

THECOURT,

composed as above,

gives the follo~ving Advisory Opinion:

1. The questions upon which the advisory opinion of the Court has been
asked were laid before the Court by a letter dated 17 Deceniber 1974, filed in

the Registry on 21 Decemter 1974, addressed by the Secretary-General of
the United Nations to the President of the Court. In his letter the Secretary-
General informed the Court that, by resolution 3292 (XXIX) adopted on
13 December 1974, the General Assembly of the United Nations had decided
to request the Court to give an advisory opinion at an early date on the
questions set out in the resolution. The text of that resolution is as fol-
lows :

"The General 'Assembly,

Recalling its resolutio1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960 containing the
Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and
Peoples,
Recalling also its resolutions2072 (XX) of 16 December 1965, 2229
(XXI) of 20 December 1966, 2354 (XXII) of 19 December 1967, 2428

(XXIII) of 18 December 1968, 2591 (XXIV) of 16 December 1969, 2711
(XXV) of 14 December 1970, 2983 (XXVII) of 14 December 1972 and
3162 (XXVIII) of 14 December 1973,
Reafirrnir?g the right of the population of the Spanish Sahara to self-
determination in accordance with resolution 1514 (XV),
Considering that the persistence of a colonial situation in Western
Sahara jeopardizes stability and harmony in the north-west African
region,

Taking into accolentthe statements made in the General Assembly on
30 September and 2 October 1974 by the Ministers for Foreign Affairs
of the Kingdom of Moroccol and of the Islamic Republic of Mauri-
tania2,
Taking note of the statements made in the Fourth Committee by the
representatives of Morocco 3 and Mauritania4, in which the two countries
acknowledged that they were both interested in the future of the Territory,

Having heard the statements by the representative of Algerias,
Having heard the statements by the representative of Spain6,

(The referencesgivenbelowappear in the text adopted by the General Assembly.)
1A/PV.2249.
A/PV.2251.
3A/C.4/SR.2117,2125 and 2130.
4A/C.4/SR.2117 and 2130.
5A/ PV.2265;A/C.4/SR.2125.
6A/PV 2253:A/C.4/SR.2117,2125,2126 and 2130. WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 14

Noring that during the discussion a legal controversy arose over the
status of thesaid territory at the time of its colonization by Spain,

Considering, therefore, that it is highly desirable that the General
Assembly, in order to continue the discussion of this question at its
thirtieth session, should receive an advisory opinion on some important

legal aspects of the problem,
Bearing in miird Article 96 of the Charter of the United Nations and
Article 65 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice,
1. Decides to request the International Court of Justice, without
prejudice to the application of the principles embodied in General
Assembly resolution 1514(XV), to give an advisory opinion at an early
date on the following questions:

'1. Was Western Sahara (Rio de Oro and Sakiet El Hamra) at the
time of colonization by Spain a territory belonging to no one
(terra nrrllius)?
If the answer to the first question is in the negative,

II. What were the legal ties between this territory and the Kingdom
of Morocco and the Mauritanian entity?';
2. Calls ripoil Spain, in its capacity as administering Power in parti-
cular, as well as Morocco and Mauritania, in their capacity as interested
parties, to submit to the International Court of Justice al1 such infor-
mation and documents as may be needed to clarify those questions;
3. Urges the administering Power to postpone the referendum it
contemplated holding in Western Sahara until the General Assembly

decides on the policy to be followed in order to accelerate the decoloni-
zation process in the territory, in accordance with resolution 1514 (XV),
in the best possible conditions, in the light ofthe advisory opinion t0 be
given by the International Court of Justice;
4. Reiterates its invitation to al1 States to observe the resolutions of
the General Assembly regarding the activities of foreign econoniic and
financial interests in the Territory and to abstain from contributing
their investments or immigration policy to the maintenance of a colonial
situation in the Territory;
5. Reqrlests the Special Conlnlittee on the Situation with regard to the
lmplementation of the Declaration on the Granting of lndependence to
Colonial Countries and Peoples to keep the situation in the Territory
under review, including the sending of a visiting iiiission to the Territory,
and to report thereon to the General Asseinbly at its thirtieth session."

2. In a comiiiunication received in the Registry on 19 Augiist 1975, the
Secretary-General indicated that, owing to a technical error, the word
"controversy" in the ninth paragrapli of the preamble of the above resolution
had been replaced by the word "difficulty" in the text originally transniitted
to the President of the Co~irt.
3. By letters dated 6 Jan~iary 1975 the Registrar, pursuant to Article 66,
paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court, gave notice of the request for
advisory opinion to al1 States entitled to appear before the Court.
4. The Court having decided, pursuant to Article 66, paragraph 2, of the

Statute, that the States Meriibers of the United Nations were likely to be able WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 15

to furnish information on the questions submitted, the President, by an
Order dated 3 January 1975, fixed 27 March 1975 as the time-limit within
which the Court would be prepared to receive written statements from them.
Accordingly, the special and direct communication provided for in Article 66,
paragraph 2, of the Statute was included in the letters addressed to those
States on 6 January 1975.
5. The following States submitted written staternents or letters to the
Court in response to the Registry's communications: Chile, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Mauritania,
Morocco, Nicaragua, Fanama and Spain. The texts of these statements and
letters were transmitted to the States Members of the United Nations, and to
the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and made accessible to the

public as frorn 22 April 1975.
6. In addition to its written statement, Spain submitted six volumes
entitled "Information and Documents presented by the Spanish Govern-
ment to the Court in accordance with paragraph 2 of resolution 3292 (XXIX)
of the United Nations General Assembly", and two volumes of "Further
Documents" submitted on the same basis. Morocco similarly submitted a
large number of documents "in support of its written statement and in accor-
dance with paragraph 2 of resolution 3292 (XXIX)". Mauritania likewise
appended documentary annexes to its written staternent. All three States
provided cartographical material.
7. The Secretary-General of the United Nations, pursuant to Article 65,
paragraph 2, of the Statute and Article 88 of the Rules of Court, transmitted
to the Court a dossier of documents likely to throw light upon the question,
together with an lntroductory Note; this dossier was received in the Registry
in several instalments, in the two official languages of the Court, between
18 February and 15 April 1975. On 23 April 1975 the Registrar transmitted
to the States Meinbers of the United Nations the Introductory Note aiid the
list of the documents comprised in the dossier.
8. By letters dated 25 and 26 March 1975,respectively, Morocco and Mau-
ritania each submitted a request foi the appointment of a judge ad hoc to sit

in the case. At public sittings hel? frorn 12 to 16 May 1975 the Court heard
observations on this question froni represeiitatives of those States, as also of
Spain and Algeria, which had likewise asked to be heard.
9. In an Order of 22 May 1975 (I.C.J. Rep0r.t~1975, pp. 6-10) the Court
concluded that, for the purpose of the preliiiiinary issue of its composition,
the material submitted to it indicated that at the tinie of the adoption of
resolution 3292 (XXIX):

". ..there appeared to be a legal dispute between Morocco and Spain
regarding the Territory of Western Sahara; that the questions contained
in the request for an opinion [might] be considered to be connected
with that dispute; and that, in consequence, for purposes of application
of Article 89 of the Rules of Court, the advisory opinion requested in
that resolution appear[ed] to be one 'upon a legal question actually
pending between two or more States';''

with regard to Mauritania, the Court concluded that the material subrnitted
to it, while showing that at the tiine of the adoption of the resolution "Mauri-
tania had previously adduced a series of considerations in support of its WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 16

particular interest in the territory of Western Sahara", indicated, for the
purpose of the aforesaid preliminary issue, that at that time "there appeared
to be no legal dispute between Mauritania and Spain regarding the Territory
of Western Sahara; and that, in consequence, for purposes of application of

Article 89 of the Rules of Court, the advisory opinion requested" appeared
"not to be one 'upon a legal question actually pending' betweenthose States";
those conclusions, the Court stated, "in no way prejudgefd] the locus standi
of any interested State in regard to matters raised in the present case, nor
[did]they prejudge the views of the Court with regard to the questions referred
to it", or any other question which might fall to be decided in the further
proceedings, including those of the Court's competence and the propriety of
its exercise. The Court found accordingly that Morocco was entitled under
Articles 31 and 68 of the Statute and Article 89 of the Rules of Court to
choosea person to sit as judge ad hoc, but that, in the case of Mauritania, the
conditions for the application ofthose Articles had not been satisfied.

10. Morocco had, in its communication of 25 March 1975mentioned above
chosen Mr. Alphonse Boni, President of the Supreme Court of the Ivory
Coast, to sit as judge adhoc in the case. Spain, consulted in accordance with
Article3, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, did not make any objection to
this choice.

11. By a letter of 29 May 1975, the Registrar invited the Governments of
the States Members of the United Nations to inform him whether they inten-
ded to take part in the oral proceedings. In addition to the four Governments
which had already submitted observations during the hearings devoted to the
question of the appointment of judges ad hoc, the Government of Zaire
indicated that it proposed to submit its point of view to the Court. These
Governments and the Secretary-General of the United Nations were informed
that the date fixed for the opening of the oral proceedings was 25 June 1975.
In the course of 27 public sittings, held between 25 June and 30 July 1975,
oral statements were made to the Court by the following representatives:

for Morocco: H.E. Mr. Driss Slaoui, Ambassador, Permanent Represen-
tative to the United Nations;

Mr. Magid Benjelloun, Procrirertrgéiréralat the Supreme
Court of Morocco;
Mr. Georges Vedel, Doyeri horroraire of the Faculty of
Law, Paris;
Mr. René-Jean Dupuy, Professor at the Faculty of Law,
Nice; meinber of the Institute of InternationalLaw;
Mr. Mohamed Bennouna, Professor at the Faculty of Law,
Rabat;
Mr. Paul Isoart, Professor at the Faculty of Law, Nice;

for Mauritania: H.E. Mr. Moulaye el Hassen, Permanent Representative
to the United Nations;
Mr. Yedali Ould Cheikh, Assistant Secretary-General of
the Office of the President;
H.E. Mr. Mohamed Ould Maouloud, Ambassador;
Mr. Jean Salmon, Professor in the Faculty of Law at the
Université libre de Bruxelles; WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 17

for Zaire: Mr. Bayona-ba-Meya, Senior President of the Supreme
Court of Zaire, Professorat the Faculty of Law, National
University of Zaire;

for Algeria: H.E. Mr. Mohammed Bedjaoui, Ambassador of Algeria to
France;

for Spain: H.E. Mr. Ramon Sedo, Ambassador of Spain to the
Netherlands ;
Mr. Santiago Martinez Caro, Director of the technical staff
of the Minister for Foreign Affairs;
Mr. José M. Lacleta, Legal Adviser to the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs;
Mr. Fernando Arias-Salgado,LegalAdviserto the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs;
Mr. Julio Gonzalez Campos, Ordinary Professor of Inter-
national Law at the University of Oviedo.

12. The Court will firstconsider certain matters regarding the procedure
adopted in the present case. One is a suggestion that the Court ought to have
suspended the proceedings on thesubstance of the questionsreferred to it and
to have first confined itself to determining in interlocutory proceedings
certain issuessaid to be preliminary: whether the Court is confronted with a
legalquestion;whether there are compellingreasons forthe Court's declining

to reply to the request; whatthe eventual effectof the Court's findingsmaybe
in respect of thefurther process of decolonization of the territory.at these
issuesare of a purely preliminary character is,however,impossible to accept,
particularly as they concern the object and nature of the request, the role of
consent in the present proceedings, and the meaning and scope of the
questionsreferred to the Court. Far from having a preliminary character, they

constitute part of the substance of the case. Moreover, the procedure
suggested, instead of facilitating the work of the Court, would have caused
unwarîanted delay in the discharge of the Court's functions and in its
responding to the request of the General Assembly. In the event, the
procedure adopted by theCourt afforded a full opportunity for al1the above
issuesto be examined, and in fact they weredebated in extensiveproceedings.

13. Another suggestion is that, before pronouncing on the requests made
by Morocco and Mauritania for appointment of judges ad hoc,the Court
ought to have decided with finality whether there was in this case a legal
dispute between those States and Spain. However, as the Court said in the
caseconcerning the Legal Consequences for States of the ContinuedPresence

of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution 276 (1970):
"...the question whether ajudge ad hocshould be appointed isofcourse

a matter concerning the composition of the Bench and possesses ... WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 19

16. It has been suggested that the questions posed by the General
Assembly are not legal, but are either factual or are questions of a purely
historical or academic character.
17. It is true that, in order to reply to the questions, theCourt will have to

determine certain facts, before being able to assess their legal significance.
However, a mixed question of law and fact isnone the lessa legalquestion
within the meaning of Article 96,paragraph 1,of the Charter and Article 65,
paragraph 1,of the Statute. Asthe Court observed in itsOpinion concerning
the Legal Consequences for States oftheContinuedPresenceofSouthAfricain

Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution
276(1970):

"In the view of the Court, the contingency that there may be factual
issues underlying the question posed does not alter its character as a
'legalquestion' asenvisaged in Article96of the Charter. The reference in
this provision to legal questions cannot be interpreted as opposing legal
to factual issues. Normally, to enable a court to pronounce on legal
questions, it must also be acquainted with, take into account and, if

necessary, make findings as to the relevant factual issues." (I.C.J.
Reports 1971,p. 27.)

18. The questions put to the Court confine the period to be taken into
consideration to the time of colonization by Spain. The view has been
expressed that in order to be a "legal question" within themeaning of Article
65, paragraph 1, of the Statute, a question must not be of a historical

character, but must concern or affect existing rights or obligations. Yet there
is nothing in the Charter or Statute to limit either the competence of the
General Assembly to request an advisory opinion, or the competence of the
Court to giveone, to legal questions relating to existing rights or obligations.
There have been instances of Advisory Opinions which did not concern

existing rights nor an actually pending issue(e.g., Designationofthe Workers'
Delegatefor theNetherlands ut the ThirdSessionofthe International Labour
Conference, Advisory Opinion, 1922, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 1). When
confronted, in the advisory case concerning Conditions of Admission of a
State to Membership in the United Nations (Article4 of Charter),with the

proposition that the Court should not deal with a question couched in
abstract terms, this Court rejected it in the following words:
"That is a mere affirmation devoid of any justification. According to

Article96of the Charter and Article65of the Statute, the Court may give
an advisory opinion onany legalquestion, abstractor otherwise." (I.C.J.
Reports 1947-1948, p. 61.)

And in its Advisory Opinion of 12July 1973the Court said:

"The mere fact that it isnot the rights of States whichare in issuein the
proceedings cannot suffice to deprive the Court of a competence
expressly conferred on it by its Statute." (Application for Review of WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 20

Judgement No.158ofthe UnitedNations Administrative Tribunal,I.C.J.
Reports 1973,p. 172.)

Although these pronouncements were made in somewhat different contexts,
they indicate that the references to "any legal question" in the above-

mentioned provisions of the Charter and Statute are not to be inter-
preted restrictively.
19. Thus, to assert that an advisory opinion deals with a legal question
within the meaning of th'eStatute only when it pronounces directly upon the
rights and obligations of the States or parties concerned, or upon the

conditions which, if fulfilled, would result in the coming into existence,
modification or termination of such a right or obligation, would be to taketoo
restrictive a view of the scope of the Court's advisory jurisdiction. It has
undoubtedly been the usual situation foran advisory opinion of the Court to
pronounce on existing rights and obligations, or on their coming into

existence, modification or termination, or on the powers of international
organs. However, the Court may also be requested to give its opinion on
questions of law which do not cal1 for any pronouncement of that kind,
though they may have their place within a wider problem the solution of
which could involve such matters. This does not signify that the Court is any

the less competent to entertain the request if it is satisfied that the questions
are in fact legalnes, and to givean opinion onceit issatisfied that there isno
compelling reason for declining to do so. ,
20. The Court accordingly finds that it is competent under Article 65,
paragraph 1, of its Statute to entertain the present request, by which the

General Assembly has referred to it questions embodying such concepts of
law as terranulliusand legal ties, regardless of the fact that the Assemblyhas
not requested the determination of existing rights and obligations. At the
same time it appears from resolution 3292(XXIX) that the opinion issought
for a practical and contemporary purpose, namely, in order that the General

Assemblyshould be in a better position to decide at itsthirtieth sessionon the
policy tobe followedfor thedecolonization of Western Sahara. However,the
issueof the relevance and practical interest of the questions posed concerns,
not the competence of the Court, but the propriety of its exercise. It is
therefore in considering the subject of judicial propriety that the Court will

examinethe objection which has been raised in this connection, allegingthat
the questions are devoid of any useful object.

21. Similarly,the absence of an interested State's consent to the exerciseof
the Court's advisory jurisdiction does not concern the competence of the

Court but the propriety of its exercise, as clearly appears from the Advisory
Opinion concerning the Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria,
Hungary and Romania, First Phase, to which reference will be made later.
Hence, notwithstanding the fact that Spain has based on the absence of its
consent an objection against the competence of the Court as well as the

propriety of its exercise, it is in dealing with the latter that the Court will
examine the issues raised by that lack of consent.

12 WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 2 1

22. In surn, while the Court is satisfied of its competence to entertain the

present request, it rernains to be considered whether, in the circurnstances of
this case, it should exercisethis competence or, on the contrary, declineto do
so, whether on the grounds already referred to or for any other reason.

23. Article 65, paragraph 1,of the Statute, which establishesthe power of
theCourt to givean advisory opinion, ispermissive and, under it, that power

isof a discretionary character. In exercisingthis discretion, the International
Court of Justice, like the Permanent Court of International Justice, has
always been guided by the principle that, as a judicial body, it is bound to
remain faithful to the requirernents of its judicial character even in giving
advisory opinions. If the question is a legal one which the Court is

undoubtedly competent to answer, it may none the less decline to do so. As
this Court has said in previous Opinions, the permissive character of Article
65, paragraph 1,gives it the power to examine whether the circumstances of
the case are of such a character as should lead it to decline to answer the
request. It has also said that the reply of the Court, itself an organ of
the United Nations, represents its participation in the activities of the

Organization and, in principle, should not be refused. By lending its
assistance inthe solution of a problem confronting the General Assembly,the
Court would discharge its functions as the principal judicial organ of the
United Nations. The Court has further said that only "compelling reasons"
should lead itto refuseto givea requestedadvisoryopinion (cf. Interpretation

of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungaryand Romania, First Phase, I.C.J.
Reports 1950,p. 72; Legal Consequencesfor States ofthe ContinuedPresence
of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution276 (1970),I.C.J. Reports 1971,p. 27).

24. Spain has put forward a series of objections which in its view would

render the giving of an opinion in the present case incompatible with the
Court's judicial character. Certain of these are based on the consequences
said to follow from the absence of Spain's consent to the adjudication of the
questions referred to the Court. Another relates to the alleged academic
nature, irrelevance or lack of object of those questions. Spain has asked the

Court to give priority to the examination of the latter. The Court will,
however, deal with the objections founded on the lack of Spain's consent to
adjudication of the questions,before turning to the objection which concerns
the subject-matter of the questions themselves. WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 22

25. Spain has made a number of observations relating to the lack of its
consent to the proceedings, which, it considers, should lead the Court to
declineto givean opinion. Theseobservations may be summarized as follows:

(a) In the present case the advisoryjurisdiction is being used to circumvent
the principle that jurisdiction to settle a dispute requires the consent of

the parties.
(b) The questions, as formulated, raise issues concerning the attribution of
territorial sovereignty over Western Sahara.

(c) The Court does not possess the necessary information concerning the

relevant facts to enable it to pronounce judicially on the questions
submitted to it.
26. The first of the above observations is based on the fact that on

23 September 1974the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Morocco addressed a
communication to the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Spain recalling the
terms of a statement by which His Majesty King Hassan II had on
17September 1974proposed thejoint submission to the International Court
of Justice of an issue expressed in the following terms:

"You, the SpanishGovernment, claim that the Sahara was res nullius.
You claim that it was a territory or property left uninherited, you claim
that no power and no administration had been established over the

Sahara: Morocco claims the contrary. Let us request the arbitration of
the International Court of Justice at The Hague. ..It will statethe law
on the basis of the titles submitted..."

Spainhasstatedbefore theCourtthat it did notconsent and does notconsent
now to the submission of this issueto thejurisdiction of the Court.

27. Spain considers that the subject of thedispute which Morocco invited
it to submit jointly to theCourtfor decision in contentious proceedings, and
the subject of the questions on which the advisory opinion is requested, are

substantially identical; thus the advisory procedure is said to have been used
as an alternativeafter the failureof an attempt to make useof thecontentious
jurisdiction with regard to the same question. Consequently, to give a reply
would, according to Spain, be to allow the advisory procedure to be used as a
means of bypassing the consent of a State, which constitutes the basis of the
Court's jurisdiction. If the Court were to countenance such a use of its

advisory jurisdiction, the outcome would be to obliterate the distinction
between the two spheres of the Court's jurisdiction, and the fundamental
principle of the independence of States would be affected, for States would
find their disputes with other States being submitted to the Court, by this
indirect means, without their consent; this might result in compulsory
jurisdiction being achieved by majority vote in a political organ. Such

circumvention of the well-established principle of consent for the exerciseof WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 23

international jurisdiction would constitute, according to this view, a
compelling reason for declining to answer the request.

28. In support of these propositions Spain has invoked the fundamental
rule, repeatedly reaffirmed in the Court's jurisprudence, that a State cannot,
without its consent, be compelled to submit its disputes with other States to
theCourt's adjudication. It has relied, inparticular,on the application of this
rule to the advisory jurisdiction by the Permanent Court of International

Justice in the Status of Eastern Carelia case (P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 5).
maintaining that the essential principle enunciated in that case is not
modified by the decisions of the present Court in the cases concerning the
Interpretationof Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungaryand Romania, First
Phase(1.C.J.Reports 1950,p. 65)and the Legal ConsequencesforStates ofthe
Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa)

notwithstanding Security CouncilResolution 276 (1970)(1.C.J. Reports 1971,
p. 16).Morocco and Mauritania,on theotherhand, have maintained that the
present casefalls within the principles applied in those twodecisions and that
theratiodecidendiof the Status ofEastern Careliacase isnot applicable to it.

29. It is clear that Spain has not consented to the adjudication of the
questions formulated in resolution 3292 (XXIX). It did not agree to
Morocco's proposa1for thejoint submission to the Court of the issueraised in
the communication of 23 September 1974.Spain made no reply to the letter

setting out the proposal, and this was properly understood by Morocco as
signifying its rejection bySpain. Asto the request for an advisory opinion,the
records of the discussions in theourth Committee and in the plenary of the
General Assembly confirm that Spain raised objections to the Court's being
asked for an opinion on the basis of the two questions formulated in the
present request. The Spanish delegation stated that it was prepared tojoin in

the request only if the questions put were supplemented by another question
establishinga satisfactorybalance between the historical and legalexposition
of the matter and thecurrentsituation viewedin the light of theCharter of the
United Nations and the relevant General Assembly resolutions on the
decolonization of the territory. In viewof Spain's persistent objections to the

questions formulated in resolution 3292 (XXIX), the fact that it abstained
and did not vote against the resolution cannotbe interpreted as implying its
consent to the adjudication of those questions by the Court. Moreover, its
participation in the Court's proceedings cannot be understood as implying
that it has consented to the adjudication of the questions posed in resolution
3292(XXIX), for it has persistently maintained its objections throughout.

30. In other respects, however, Spain's position in relation to the present
proceedings finds no parallel in the circumstances of the advisory
proceedings concerning the Status of Eastern Carelia in 1923. In that case,

one of the States concerned was neither a party to the Statute of the WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 24

Permanent Court nor, at the time, a Member of the League of Nations, and
lack of competence of the League to deal with a dispute involving

non-member States which refused its intervention was a decisivereason for
the Court's declining to give an answer. In the present case, Spain is a
Member of the United Nations and has accepted the provisions of the
Charter and Statute; it has thereby in general given itsconsent to the exercise
by the Court of its advisory jurisdiction. It has not objected, and could not

validly object, to the General Assembly'sexercise of its powers to deal with
the decolonization of a non-self-governingterritory and to seek an opinion
on questionsrelevant to theexerciseof those powers. In the proceedings in the
General Assembly, Spain did not oppose the reference of the Western Sahara
question as such to the Court's advisoryjurisdiction: it objected rather to the
restriction of that reference to the historical aspects of that question.

31. In theproceedingsconcerning the InterpretationofPeace Treatieswith
Bulgaria, Hungaryand Romania, FirstPhase,this Court had to consider how
far the views expressed by the Permanent Court in the Status of Eastern
Careliacase werestill pertinent in relation to theapplicable provisions of the

Charter of the United Nations and the Statute of the Court. It stated, inter
alia :

"This objection reveals a confusion between the principles governing
contentious procedure and those which are applicable to Advisory
Opinions.
The consent of States, parties to a dispute, is the basis of the Court's
jurisdiction in contentious cases. The situation is different in regard to

advisoryproceedings even wherethe Request for an Opinion relates to a
legalquestion actually pending between States.The Court's reply isonly
of an advisory character: as such, it has no binding force. It follows that
no State, whether a Member of the United Nations or not, can prevent
the giving of an Advisory Opinion which the United Nations considers
to bedesirable in order to obtain enlightenment asto thecourse of action

it should take. The Court's Opinion isgiven not to the States, but to the
organ which is entitled to request it; the reply of the Court, itself an
'organ of the United Nations', represents its participation in the activi-
ties of the organization, and, in principle, should not be refused."
(1.C.J.Reports 1950,p. 71.)

32. The Court, it is true, affirmed in this pronouncement that its
competence to givean opinion did not depend on theconsent of theinterested
States, even when the case concerned a legal question actually pending

between them. However, the Court proceeded not merely to stress itsjudicial
character and the permissive nature of Article 65, paragraph 1,of the Statute
but to examine, specifically in relation to the opposition of some of the
interested States,the question of thejudicial propriety of givingthe opinion.
Moreover, the Court emphasized the circumstances differentiating the case WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 25

then under consideration from the Status of Eastern Carelia case and
explained the particular grounds which led it to conclude that there was no
reason requiring the Court to refuse to reply to the request.Thus the Court
recognized that lack of consent might constitute a ground for declining to

give the opinion requested if, in the circumstances of a given case,
considerations of judicial propriety should oblige the Court to refuse an .
opinion. In short,the consent of an interested State continues to be relevant,
not for the Court's competence, but for the appreciation of the propriety of
giving an opinion.
33. In certain circumstances,therefore, the lack of consent of an interested

State may render the giving of an advisory opinion incompatible with the
Court's judicial character. An instance of this would be when the
circumstances disclose that to give a reply would have the effect of
circumventing the principle that a State isnot obliged to allow its disputes to
be submitted to judicial settlement without its consent. If such a situation
shouldarise,thepowers of the Court under thediscretion givento itbyArticle

65, paragraph 1,of the Statute, would afford sufficientlegal means to ensure
respect for the fundamental principle of consent to jurisdiction.
34. The situation existing in the present case is not, however, the one
envisaged above. There isin thiscase a legalcontroversy, but one which arose
during the proceedings of the General Assembly and in relation to matters
with which it was dealing. It did not arise independently in bilateral re-

lations. In a communication addressed on 10 November 1958 to the
Secretary-General of the United Nations, the Spanish Government stated:
"Spain possesses no non-self-governing territories, since the territories
subjectto itssovereignty in Africa are, in accordance with thelegislation now
in force,considered to be and classifiedas provinces of Spain". This gaverise
to the "most explicit reservations" of the Government of Morocco, which, in

a communication to the Secretary-General of 20 November 1958,stated that
it"claim[ed]certain African territories at present under Spanishcontrol asan
integral part of Moroccan national territory".

35. On 12October 1961,after Spain had agreed to transmit information
on the territories in question, Morocco formulated in the Fourth Committee

of the General Assembly "the strongest reservations" regarding any
information Spain might submit concerning them. "Those cities and
regions", it said, "formed an integral part of Morocco and the statutes at
present governing them werecontrary to international law and incompatible
with theterritorial sovereignty and integrity of Morocco". In answeringthese
reservations, Spain drew attention, with reference to Western Sahara, to the

statement it had made on 10October 1961in the General Assembly:

"...the historic presence of Spanishcitizens on the WestCoastof Africa,
not subject to the sovereignty of any other country and devoting WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 26

themselves largelyto fishing,goes back a very long way and has been
confirmed by international law ... [Vhe rulers of Morocco have
recognizedon repeated occasions that their sovereignty doesnot extend
to the coasts of the present Spanishprovince of the Sahara".

36. The legal controversy which thus arose in the General Assembly in
regard to Western Sahara remained in a latent state from 1966to 1974,a
period in which Morocco, without abandoning its legal position, accepted
the-application of the principle of self-determination. The controversy
reappeared when Morocco directly presented to Spain its legal claim in the
abovecommunication of 23 September 1974,and continued to subsist;this
communication, however, did not have the effect of detaching the dispute
fromthedecolonization proceedings of the United Nations. Thesubmission
of the issue to the Court was explicitly proposed by Morocco "in order to
guidethe United Nations towards a finalsolution ofthe problem of Western
Sahara.. .".
37. After it became a Member in 1960, Mauritania put forward in the
United Nations the claim that Western Sahara was a part of its national
territory. It washoweverprepared to acquiescein the willof the population
and did not confront Spain with a direct legal claim parallelÏti that of
Morocco.
38. As previouslynoted, Spain considers that the terms of the Moroccan
Note of 23 September 1974 and those of the request are substantially
identical. Thisis not however the case. The questions in the request differ
materially from those raised in the Moroccan proposal, in that the former

introducesthe issueofthetiesoftheterritory withthe Mauritanian entityand
places the case referred to the Court in a different context. In the General
Assembly debates the claims of Mauritania and Morocco to legal ties
appeared, in many respects,asconflicting;in the oral proceedingsbeforethe
Court they were described as overlapping in certain areas rather than as
conflicting. The interaction betweenthese two claims in respect of the same
territoryintroduces, ineithersituation, asubstantial difference,goingbeyond
amerebroadening inthescopeofthequestionsposed. Inanyevent,theterms
of the request contain a proviso concerning the application of General
Assemblyresolution 1514(XV).Thus the legalquestions of whichthe Court
hasbeen seisedarelocatedinabroader frameofreference than thesettlement
of a particular dispute and embrace other elements. These elements,
moreover,are not confinedto thepastbut arealsodirected tothe present and
the future.

39. The above considerations are pertinent for a determination of the
object of the present request. The object of the General Assemblyhas not
been to bring before the Court, by wayof a request for advisoryopinion, a
dispute or legal controversy, inorder that it may later, on the basis of the
Court's opinion,exerciseitspowersand functionsforthe peacefulsettlement WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 27

of thatdispute or controversy. The object of the request isan entirelydifferent
one: to obtain from the Court an opinion which theGeneral Assemblydeems
of assistance to it for the proper exercise of its functions concerning the
decolonization of the territory.

40. The General Assembly, as appears from paragraph 3 of resolution
3292(XXIX), has asked the Court foran opinion so asto be in a position to
decide "on the policy to be followedin order to acceleratethe decolonization
process in the territory...in the best possible conditions, in the light of the
advisory opinion.. .".The true object of the request is also stressed in the
preamble of resolution 3292 (XXIX), where it is stated "that it is highly

desirable that the General Assembly, in order to continue the discussion of
this question at its thirtieth session, should receive an advisory opinion on
some important legal aspects of the problem".
41. What the Court said in a similar context, in its Advisory Opinion on
Reservations to the Convention on the Preventionand Punishment of the
CrimeofGenocide, appliesalso to thepresent case:"The object of this request

for an Opinion is to guide the United Nations in respect of its own action."
(Z.C.J.Reports1951,p. 19.)The legitimate interest of theGeneral Assembly in
obtaining an opinion from the Court in respect of its own future action
cannot be affected or prejudiced by the fact that Morocco made a proposal,
not accepted by Spain, to submit for adjudication by the Court a dispute
raising issuesrelated tothose contained in the request. It is difficultto see on

what basisthe sending of the Note would make Spain's consent necessary for
the reference of the questions to the Court, if that consent would not
otherwise be needed.

42. Furthermore, the origin and scope of the dispute, as above described,
are important in appreciating, from the point of view of the exercise of the
Court's discretion, the real significance in this case of the lack of Spain's

consent. The issue between Morocco and Spain regarding Western Sahara is
not one asto the legal status of the territory today, but one as to the rights of
Morocco over it at the time of colonization. The settlement of this issuewill
not affectthe rights of Spain today asthe administering Power,but willassist
the General Assembly in deciding on the policy to be followed in order to
accelerate the decolonization process in the territory. It followsthat the legal

position of the State which has refused its consent to the present proceedings
isnot "in any way compromised by theanswers that the Court may giveto the
questions put to it" (Znterpretationof Peace Treaties withBulgaria,Hungary
and Romania, FirstPhase, Z.C.J.Reports 1950,p. 72).

43. A second way in which Spain has put the objection of lack of its
consent isto maintain that the dispute isa territorial oneand that theconsent

19 WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 28

of a State to adjudication of a disputeconcerning theattribution of territorial
sovereignty is alwaysnecessary.Thequestions in the request do not however
relate to a territorial dispute, in the proper sense of the term, between the
interested States. They do not put Spain's present position as the

administering Powerof theterritory in issuebefore the Court: resolution 3292
(XXIX) itself recognizes the current legal status of Spain as administering
Power. Nor is in issue before the Court the validity of the titles which led to
Spain's becoming the administering Power of the territory, and this was
recognized in the oral proceedings. The Court finds that the request for an
opinion does not cal1 for adjudication upon existing territorial rights or

sovereigntyoverterritory. Nor does theCourt's Order of 22 May 1975 convey
any implication that the present case relates to a claim of a territorial nature.

44. A third way in which Spain, in its written statement, has presented'its
opposition to the Court's pronouncing upon the questions posed in the
request isto maintain that inthis casetheCourt cannot fulfilthe requirements
of good administration of justice as regards the determination of the facts.
The attribution of territorial sovereignty, it argues, usually centres on
material actsinvolving the exerciseof that sovereignty, and theconsideration

of such acts and of the respective titles inevitably involves an exhaustive
determination of facts. In advisory proceedings there are properly speaking
no parties obliged to furnish the necessary evidence, and the ordinary rules
concerning the burden of proof can hardly be applied. That being so,
according to Spain, the Court should refrain from replying in the absence of
facts which are undisputed, since it would not be in possession of sufficient

information such as would be available in adversary proceedings.

45. Considerations of this kind played a role in the case concerning the
Status of Eastern Carelia. In that instance, the non-participation of a State
concerned in the case was a secondary reason for the refusa1to answer. The

Permanent Court of International Justice noted the difficulty of making an
enquiry into factsconcerning the main point of a controversy whenone of the
parties thereto refused to take part in the proceedings.
46. Although in that case the refusai of one State to take part in the
proceedings wasthecause of the inadequacy of the evidence,it wai theactual
lack of "materials sufficient to enable it to arrive at any judicial conclusion

upon the question of fact" (P.C.Z.J., Series B, No, 5, p. 28) which was
considered by the Permanent Court, for reasons of judicial propriety, to
prevent it from giving an opinion. Consequently, the issue is whether the
Court hasbefore itsufficientinformation and evidenceto enable ittoarrive at
a judicial conclusion upon any disputed questions of fact the determination WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 29

of which is necessary for it to give an opinion in conditions compatible with
itsjudicial character.
47. The situation in the present case is entirely different from that with
which the Permanent Court was confronted in the Status ofEasternCarelia
case. Mauritania, Morocco and Spain have furnished very extensive

documentary evidence of the facts which they considered relevant to the
Court's examination of the questions posed in the request, and each of these
countries, as well as Algeria and Zaire, have presented their views on these
facts and on the observations of the others. The Secretary-Generalhas also
furnished a dossier of documentsconcerningthediscussion of thequestionof
Western Sahara in the competent United Nations organs. The Court

therefore considers that the information and evidencebefore it are sufficient
to enable it to arrive at a judicial conclusion concerning the facts which are
relevant to itsopinion and necessary for replying to the two questions posed
in the request.

48. The Court has been asked to state that it ought not to examine the
substance of the present request, since the reply to the questions put to it
would be devoid of purpose. Spain considers that the United Nations has
already affirmed the nature of the decolonization process applicable to
Western Sahara in accordance with General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV);

that the method of decolonization-a consultation of the indigenous
population by means of a referendum to be conducted by the administering
Power under United Nations auspices-has been settled by the General
Assembly. According to Spain, the questions put to the Court are therefore
irrelevant, and the answers cannot have any practical effect.

49. Morocco has expressed the view that the General Assembly has not
finally settled the principles and techniques to be followed, being free to
choosefrom a wide range of solutions in the light of two basic principles: that
of self-determination indicated in paragraph 2 of resolution 1514 (XV), and
the principle of the national unity and territorial integrity of countries,
enunciated in paragraph 6 of the same resolution. Morocco points out that

decolonization may come about through the reintegration of a province with
themothercountry from which itwasdetached in the process of colonization.
Thus, in the view of Morocco,the questionsare relevant because the Court's
answer will place the General Assembly in a better position to choose the
process best suited for the decolonization of the territory.

50. Mauritania maintains that the principle of self-determination cannot
be dissociatedfrom that of respect for national unity and territorial integrity;
that the General Assembly examines each question in the context of the
situations to be regulated; inseveral instances, it has been induced to give WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 30

priority to territorial integrity, particularly in situations where the territory
had been created by a colonizing Powerto the detriment of a State or country
to which the territory belonged. Mauritania, pointing out that resolutions
1541(XV)and 2625(XXV)havelaid down various methods and possibilities

for decolonization, considers, in viewof the foregoing, that thequestionsput
to the Court are relevant and should be answered.
51. Algeria Statesthat theself-determination of peoples isthefundamental
principle governing decolonization, enshrined in Articles 1 and 55 of the
Charter and in General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV); that, through

successive resolutions which recommend that the population should be
consulted as to its own future, the General Assembly has recognized the
right of the people of Western Sahara to exercise free and genuine
self-determination; and that the application of self-determination in the
framework of such consultation has been accepted by the administering
Power and supported by regional institutions and international conferences,

as well as endorsed by the countries of the area. In the light of these
considerations, Algeria isof the viewthat the Court shouldanswerthe request
and, in doing so, should not disregard the fact that the General Assembly, in
resolution 3292(XXIX), has itself confirmed its willto apply resolution 1514
(XV), that is to Say, a system of decolonization based on the self-

determination of the people of Western Sahara.
52. Extensive argument and divergent views have been presented to the
Court asto how, and in what form, the principles of decolonization apply in
this instance, in the light of thevarious General Assembly resolutions on
decolonization in general and on decolonization of the territory of Western
Sahara in particular. This matter is not directly the subject of the questions

put to the Court, but it is raised as a basis for an objection to the Court's
replying to the request. In any event, the applicable principles of
decolonization cal1for examination by theCourt, in that they arean essential
part of theframework of thequestionscontained in the request.The reference
in those questions to a historical period cannot be understood to fetter or

hamper the Court in thedischarge of itsjudicial functions. That would not be
consistent with the Court's judicial character; for in the exercise of its
functions it isnecessarily called upon to take into account existing rules of
international law which are directlv connected with the terms of the reauest
and indispensable for the proper interpretation and understanding of its
Opinion (cf. 1.C.J. Reports 1962,p. 157).

53. The proposition that those questions are academic and legally
irrelevant is intimately connected with their object, the determination of
which requires the Court to consider, not only the whole text of resolution
3292(XXIX), but also the general background and thecircumstances which
led to its adoption. This isso because resolution 3292(XXIX) is the latest of

a long series of General Assembly resolutions dealing with Western Sahara.
Alltheseresolutions, including resolution 3292(XXIX), weredrawn up in the
general context of the policies of the General Assembly regarding the WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 31

decolonization of non-self-governingterritories. Consequently, in order to
appraise the correctness or otherwise of Spain's view as to the object of the
questions posed, it isnecessary to recall brieflythe basicprinciplesgoverning
the decolonization policy of the General Assembly, the general lines of
previous General Assembly resolutions on the question of Western Sahara,
and the preparatory work and context of resolution 3292 (XXIX).

54. The Charter of the United Nations, in Articl1,paragraph 2,indicates,
as one of the purposes of the United Nations: "To developfriendlyrelations

among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and
self-determination of peoples ..." This purpose is further developed in
Articles 55and 56of the Charter. Those provisionshavedirect and particular
relevance for non-self-governingterritories, which are dealt with in Chapter
XI of theCharter. Asthe Court stated in itsAdvisory Opinion of 21 June 1971
on The Legal Consequencesfor States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council

Resolution 276 (1970):
"...the subsequent development of international law in regard to
non-self-governingterritories, asenshrined in the Charter of the United

Nations, made the principle of self-determination applicable to al1of
them" (I.C.J. Reports 1971,p. 31).
55. The principle of self-determination as a right of peoples, and its

application forthe purpose of bringing al1colonialsituations toa speedyend,
were enunciated in the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to
Colonial Countries and Peoples, General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV). In
this resolution the General Assembly proclaims "the necessity of bringing
to a speedy and unconditional end colonialism in al1 its forms and
manifestations". To this end the resolution provides interalia:

"2. Allpeopleshavethe right to self-determination; by virtue of that right
they freely determine their political status and freelypursue their

economic,social and cultural development.

5. Immediate steps shall be taken, in Trust and Non-Self-Governing
Territories or al1 other territories which have not yet attained

independence, to transfer al1 powers to the peoples of those
territories, without any conditions or reservations, in accordance
with their freely expressed willanddesire, without any distinction as
to race, creed or colour, inrder to enable them to enjoy complete
independence and freedom. WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 32

6. Any attempt aimed at the partial or total disruption of the national
unity and the territorial integrity of a country is incompatible with
the purpose and principles of the Charter of the United Nations."

The above provisions, inparticularparagraph 2,thus confirm and ernphasize
that the application of the right of self-determination requires a free and
genuine expression of the willof the peoples concerned.
56. The Court had occasion to refer to this. resolution in the above-

mentioned Advisory Opinion of 21 June 1971. Speaking of the develop-
ment of international lawin regardtonon-self-governing territories,theCourt
there stated:
"A further important stage in this development was the Declaration

on the Granting of ~nde~endenceto colonial Countries and Peoples
(General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960), which
embraces al1 peoples and territories which 'have not yet attained
independence'." (I.CJ. Reports 1971,p. 31 .)

It went onto state:
".. .the Court must take into consideration the changes which have

occurred in the supervening half-century, and its interpretation cannot
remain unaffected by the subsequent development of law, through the
Charter of the United Nations and by way of customary law" (ibid.).
TheCourt then concluded:

"In the domain to which the present proceedings relate, the last fifty
years, as indicated above, have brought important developments. These
developments leave little doubt that the ultimate objectiveof the sacred

trust was the self-determination and independence of the peoples
concerned. In this domain, as elsewhere, the corpus iuris gentiumhas
been considerably enriched, and this the Court, if it is faithfully to
discharge its functions, may not ignore." (Ibid., pp. 31 f.)

57. General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) provided the basis for the
process of decolonization which has resulted since 1960 in the creation of
rnany States which are today Members of the United Nations. It is
complernented in certain of its aspects by General Assernblyresolution 1541
(XV), which has been invoked in the present proceedings. The latter

resolution contemplates for non-self-governing territories more than one
possibility, namely:
(a) emergence as a sovereign independent State;

(b) free association with an independent State; or
(c) integration with an independent State.
At the same time,certain of its provisions giveeffectto the essential feature of
the right of self-determination as established in resolution514 (XV). Thus WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 33
principle VI1of resolution 1541 (XV)declaresthat: "Free associationshould

be the result of a free and voluntary choice by the peoples of the territory
concerned expressed through informed and democratic processes." Again,
principle IX of resolution1541 (XV)declares that:
"Integration shouldhave comeabout in the followingcircumstances:
...............................

(b) Theintegration shouldbe the resultof the freelyexpressedwishes
of the territory's peoples acting with full knowledge of the change in
their status, their wisheshaving been expressed through informed and
democratic processes, impartially conducted and based on universal
adult suffrage.The United Nations could, when it deems it necessary,
supervise theseprocesses."

58. General Assemblyresolution 2625 (XXV), "Declaration on Principles
of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation
among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nationsw,-to
which reference was also made in -the proceedings-mentions other
possibilitiesbesidesindependence,association or integration. Butindoingso
it reiterates the basic need to take account of the wishes of the people
concerned:

"The establishment of a sovereign and independent State, the free
association or integration with an independent Stateor the emergence
into any other political statusieely determined by a people constitute
modes of implementingthe right of self-determination by that people."
(Emphasis added.)

Resolution 2625 (XXV)further provides that:

"Every State has the duty to promote, through joint and separate
action,realizationoftheprinciple ofequalrightsand self-determination
of peoples in accordance with the provisions of the Charter, and to
render assistance to the United Nations in carrying out the
responsibilities entrusted to it by the Charter regarding the
implementation of the principle, inorder:
...............................

(b) Tobring aspeedyend tocolonialism,havingdueregardto thefreely
expressedwillof thepeoplesconcerned."
59.Thevalidityof the principle of self-determination, definedasthe need
to pay regard to the freely expressedwill of peoples,is not affected by the
fact that in certain cases the General Assembly has dispensed with the
requirement of consulting the inhabitants of a given territory. Those

instances werebased eitherontheconsideration that acertainpopulation did
not constitute a "people" entitled to self-determination or on the conviction
that a consultation wastotally unnecessary,in viewofspecialcircumstances. WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 34
60. Having set out the basic principles governing the decolonization

policy of the General Assembly, the Court now turns to those resolutions
which bear specifically on the decolonization of Western Sahara. Their
analysis is necessary in order to determine the validity of the view that the
questions posed in resolution 3292 (XXIX) lack object. In particular it is
pertinent to compare the different ways in which the General Assembly

resolutions adopted from 1966to 1969dealt with the questions of Ifni and
Western Sahara.
61. In 1966,in the Special Committee on the Situation with regard to the
Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to
Colonial Countries and Peoples, Spain expressed itself in favour of the
decolonization of Western Sahara through the exercise by the population of

the territory of their right to self-determination. At that time this suggestion
received the support of Mauritania and the assent of Morocco. As to Ifni,
Spain suggested establishing contact with Morocco as a preliminary step.
Morocco stated that the decolonization of Ifni should be brought into line
with paragraph 6 of resolution 1514(XV).

62. On the basis of the proposals of the Special Committee, the General
Assembly adopted resolution 2229 (XXI), which dealt differently with Ifni
and Western Sahara. In the case of Ifni, the resolution:

"3. Requests the administering Power to take immediately the
necessary steps to acceleratethe decolonization of Ifni and to determine
with the Government of Morocco,bearing in mind the aspirations of the
indigenous population, procedures for the transfer of powers in
accordance with the provisions of General Assembly resolution 1514

(XV)."
In the case of Western Sahara, the resolution:

"4. Invites the administering Power to determine at the earliest
possible date, in conformity with the aspirations of the indigenous
people of Spanish Sahara and in consultation with the Governments of

Mauritaniaand Morocco and any other interested Party, the procedures
for the holding of a referendum under United Nations auspices with a
view to enabling the indigenous population of the Territory to exercise
freely its right,to self-determinati..."

In respect of this territory the resolution also set out conditions designed to
ensure thefreeexpression of the willof thepeople,including the provision by
the administering Power of "facilities to a United Nations mission so that it
may be able to participate actively in the organization and holding of the

referendum".
63. Resolution 2229 (XXI) was the model for a series of resolutions the
provisions of which regarding Western Sahara werein theirsubstance almost
identical. Only a fewminor variations wereintroduced. In 1967theoperative
part of resolution 2354 (XXII) was divided into two sections, one dealing

with Ifni and the other with Western Sahara; and in 1968 resolution 2428 WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 35

(XXIII), similarly divided, included a preamble noting "the difference in
nature of the legal status ofese two Territories, as well as the processes of
decolonization envisaged by General Assembly resolution 2354 (XXII) for
these Territories". Since1969 Ifni, having been decolonized by transfer to
Morocco, has no longer appeared in the resolutions of the Assembly.

64. In subsequent years, theGeneral Assemblymaintained itsapproach to

the question of Western Sahara, and reiterated in more pressing terms the
need to consult the wishes of the people of the territory as to their political
future. Indeed resolution 2983 (XXVII) of 1972 expressly reaffirms "the
responsibility of the United Nations in al1consultationsintended to lead to
the freeexpressionof the wishesof the people". Resolution3162 (XXVIII) of
1973, whiledeploring the fact that the United Nations mission whose active
participation in the organization and holding of the referendum had been

recommended since 1966 had not yet been able to visitthe territory, reaffirms
the General Assembly's:
"...attachment to the principle of self-determination and itsconcern to

see that principle applied with a framework that will guarantee the
inhabitants of the Saharaunder Spanish domination free and authentic
expression of their wishes, in accordance with the relevant United
Nations resolutions on the subject".

65. All these resolutions from 1966 to 1973 were adopted in the face of
reminders by Morocco and Mauritania of their respective claims that
Western Sahara constituted an integral part of their territory. At the same
timeMorocco and Mauritania assented to theholding of a referendum. These
States, among others, alleging that the recommendations of the General
Assembly were being disregarded by Spain, emphasized the need for the
referendum to be held insatisfactory conditions and under the supervision of

the United Nations.

66. A significant change was introduced in resolution 3292 (XXIX) by
which the Court is seisedof the present request for an advisory opinion. The
administering Power is urged in paragraph 3 of the resolution "to postpone

the referendum it contemplated holding in Western Sahara". The General
Assemblytook special care, however, to insert provisions making it clear that
such a postponement did not prejudice or affect the right of the people of
Western Sahara to self-determination in accordance with resolution 1514
(XV).
67. The provisions in question contain three express references to
resolution1514 (XV). In theGeneral Assembly debates the representativeof

the Ivory Coast, one of the sponsors of resolution 3292 (XXIX), after
describing the text before the General Assembly as the result of a
compromise, called attention to these references to resolution 1514 (XV), WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 36

explaining that they had been introduced into the original text in order to
enable the General Assembly to be consistent. In the light of the terms of
resolution 3292 (XXIX) this must be understood as indicating the intention
to ensure the consistency of that resolution with previous resolutions of the

General Assembly.
68. The third paragraph in the preamble of resolution 3292 (XXIX)
reaffirms "the right of the population of the Spanish Sahara to self-
determination in accordance with resolution 1514(XV)". In paragraph 1
of the operative part, where the questions asked of the Court are formulated,

the Court isrequested,"without prejudice to the application of the principles
embodied in General Assembly resolution 1514(XV)", to give its advisory
opinion. This mention of resolution 1514(XV) is thus made to relate to the
actual request for the opinion. The reference to the application of the
principles embodied in resolution 1514(XV)has necessarily to be read in the

light of the General Assembly's reaflïrmation in the third paragraph of the
preamble of "the right of the population of the Spanish Sahara to
self-determination in accordance with resolution 1514(XV)".
69. In paragraph 3 of the operative part it is urged thàt the referendum be
postponed "until the General Assembly decides on the policy to be followed
in order to accelerate the decolonization process in the territory, in

accordance with resolution 1514 (XV)". This third mention of resolution
1514(XV),which has also to be read in the light of the preamble, thus refers
to itasgoverning"the decolonization process in theterritory" and "the policy
to be followed in order to accelerate" that process.

70. In short, the decolonization process to be accelerated which is

envisaged by the General Assembly in this provision isone which willrespect
the right of the population of Western Sahara to determine their future
political status by their own freelyexpressed will.This right isnot affectedby
the present request for an advisory opinion, nor by resolution3292(XXIX);
on the contrary, it is expressly reaffirmed in that resolution. The right of that

population to self-determination constitutes therefore a basic assumption of
the questions put to the Court.
71. It remains to be ascertained whether the application of the right of
self-determination to the decolonization of Western Sahara renders without
object the two specific questions put to the Court. The Court has already
concluded that the two questions must be considered in the whole context of

thedecolonization process.The right ofself-determination leavestheGeneral
Assemblya measure of discretion with respectto theforms and procedures by
which that right is to be realized.
72. An advisory opinion of the Court on the legal status of the territory at
the time of Spanish colonization and on the nature of any ties then existing

with Morocco and with the Mauritanian entity may assist the General
Assembly in the future decisions which it isalled upon to take. The General
Assembly has referred to its intention to ':continue its discussion of this
question" in the light of the Court's advisory opinion. The Court, when WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORY OPINION) 37

considering the object of the questions in accordance with the text of

resolution 3292 (XXIX), cannot fail to note this statement. As to the future
action of the General Assembly, various possibilities exist, for instance with
regard to consultations between the interested States, and theprocedures and
guarantees required for ensuring a free and genuine expression of the will of
the people. In general, an opinion given by the Court in the present
proceedings will furnish the General Assembly with elements of a legal

character relevant to its further treatment of the decolonization of Western
Sahara.
73. In any event, to what extent or degree its opinion will have an impact
on the action of the General Assembly is not for the Court to decide. The
function of the Court isto givean opinion based on law, once it has come to

the conclusion that the questions put to it are relevant and have a practical
and contemporary effect and, consequently, are not devoid of object or
purpose.

74. In the light of theconsiderations set out in paragraphs 23-73above, the
Court findsno compellingreason, in the circumstances of the present case,to
refuse to comply with the request by the General Assembly for an advisory

opinion.

75. Having established that it is seised of a request for advisory opinion
which itiscompetent to entertain and that itshould comply with that request,
the Court will now examine the two questions which have been referred to it
by General Assembly resolution 3292 (XXIX). These questions are so
formulated that an answerto the second iscalled for only if the answerto the
first is in the negative:

"1. WasWestern Sahara(Riode Oro and Sakiet El Hamra) atthetime of
colonization by Spain a territory belonging to no one (terranullius)?

If the answer to the first question is in the negative,

II. What were the legal ties between this territory and theKingdom of
Morocco and the Mauritanian entity?"

The suggestion has been made that the two questions are so far connected in
substance that an affirmative answer could scarcely be given to the first
question without also investigatingthe answer to be given to the second. It is
possible, however, that, in the actual circumstances of the case, a negative
answer to the first question may be called for irrespective of the Court's WESTERNSAHARA'(ADVISORYOPINION) 38

conclusions regarding the answer to be given to the second. Accordingly,the
two questions will be taken up separately and in turn.

76. The request, by its expressterms, relates Question 1specifically to the
time of colonization of Western Sahara(Riode Oro and Sakiet El Hamra) by
Spain. Similarly,by making thesecond question conditional upon theanswer
to the first and by formulating it in the past tense, the request also
unmistakably relates the second question to that same period. Consequently,
before embarking on its examination of the questions, the Court has to
determine what, for the purposes of the present Opinion, should be

considered "the time of colonization by Spain". In this connection, it
emphasizes that it is not here concerned to establish a "critical date" in the
sensegiven to this term in territorial disputes; for thequestions do not ask the
Court to adjudicate between conflicting legal titles to Western Sahara. It is
here concerned only to identify the period of the historical context in which
the request places the questions referred to the Court and the answers to be

given to those questions.
77. In the view ofthe Court, for the purposes of the present Opinion, "the
time of colonization by Spain" may be considered as the period beginning in
1884,when Spain proclaimed a protectorate over the Rio de Oro. It is true
that Spain has mentioned certain earlier acts of alleged display of Spanish
sovereignty in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. But it has explained that

it did so only to enlighten the Court as to the remote antecedents of the
Spanish presenceon the west-African Coast,and not to prove any continuity
between those acts and "the time of colonization by Spain", which it
conceded should be regarded as beginning in 1884. In any event, the
information before the Court convinces it that the period beginning in 1884
represents "the time of colonization by Spain" of Western Sahara within the

meaning of the request and constitutes thetemporal context within which the
two questions are placed by the terms of the request.

78. Although the Court has thus been asked to render an opinion solely
upon the legal status and legal ties of Western Sahara as these existed at the

period beginning in 1884,this does not mean that any information regarding
its legal status or legal ties at other timeswholly without relevance for the
purposes of this Opinion. It does, however, mean that such information has
present relevance only in so far as it may throw light on the questions as to
what werethe legal status and the legal ties of Western Sahara at that period.

79. Turning to Question 1,the Court observes that the request specifically
locatesthequestion in thecontext of "the time of colonization by Spain", and
it therefore seems clear that the words "Was Western Sahara ... a territory

belonging to no one (terranullius)?"haveto be interpreted by reference to the WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 39

law in force at that period. The expression "terranullius"was a legal term of
art employed in connection with "occupation" as one of the accepted legal

methods of acquiring sovereigntyover territory. "Occupation" being legally
an original means of peaceablyacquiring sovereigntyoverterritory otherwise
than by cession or succession, it was a cardinal condition of a valid
"occupation" that the territory should be terra nullius- a territory belonging
to no-one - at the time of the act alleged to constitutethe "occupation" (cf.
Legal Status ofEastern Greenland, P.C.I.J.,Series A/B, No. 53,pp. 44 f.and

63 f.). In the view of the Court, therefore, a determination that Western
Sahara was a "terra nu1lius"atthe time of colonization by Spain would be
possible only if it were established that at that time the territory belonged to
no-one in the sense that it was then open to acquisition through the legal
process of "occupation".
80. Whatever differences of opinion there may have been among jurists,
the State practice of the relevant period indicates that territories inhabited by

tribes or peoples having a social and political organization werenot regarded
as teirae nullius.It shows that in the case of such territories the acquisition
of sovereignty was not generally considered as effected unilaterally through
"occupation" of terra nullius by original title but through agreements
concluded with local rulers. On occasion, it is true, the word "occupation"
was used in a non-technical sensedenoting simplyacquisition of sovereignty;

but that did not signify that the acquisition of sovereignty through such
agreements with authorities of the country was regarded as an "occupation"
of a "terranullius9'inthe proper sense of these terms. On the contrary, such
agreements with localrulers,whether or not considered as an actual "cession"
of the territory, were regarded as derivative roots of title, and not original
titles obtained by occupation of terrae nullius.

81. In the present instance, the information furnished to the Court shows
that at the time of colonization Western Sahara was inhabited by peoples
which, ifnomadic, weresocially and politicallyorganized in tribes and under
chiefscompetent to represent them. It alsoshows that, in colonizing Western
Sahara,' Spain did not proceed on the basis that it was establishing its
sovereigntyover terrae nullius.In its Royal Order of 26 December 1884,far

from treating the case as one of occupation of terra nullius,Spain proclaimed
that the King was taking the Rio de Oro under his protection on the basis of
agreements which had been entered into with the chiefs of the local tribes:the
Order referred expressly to "the documents which the independent tribes of
this part of the coast" had "signed with the representative of the Sociedad
Espafiola de Africanistas", and announced that the King had confirmed

"the deeds of adherence" to Spain. Likewise, in negotiating with France
concerning the limits of Spanish territory to the north of the Rio de Oro, that
is, in theSakiet El Hamra area, Spain did not rely upon any claim to the
acquisition of sovereignty over a terra nullius.
82. Beforethe Court, differing viewswereexpressed concerning the nature
and legal value of agreements between a State and local chiefs. But the Court WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISOR YPINION) 40

is not asked by Question 1 to pronounce upon the legal character or the
legality of the titles which ledto Spain becoming the administering Power of

Western Sahara. It isasked only to state whether Western Sahara (Rio de Oro
and Sakiet El Hamra) at the time of colonization by Spain was "a territory
belonging to no one (terra nullius)".As to this question, the Court issatisfied
that, for the reasons which it has given, its answer must be in the negative.
Accordingly, the Court does not find it necessary firstto pronounce upon the

correctness or otherwise of Morocco's view that the territory was not terra
nulliusat that time because the local tribes, soit maintains, werethen subject
to the sovereignty of the Sultan of Morocco; nor upon Mauritania's
corresponding proposition that theterritory wasnot terranulliusbecause the
local tribes, in its view, then formed part of the "Bilad Shinguitti" or
Mauritanian entity. Anyconclusions that the Court may reach with respect to

either ofthese points of view cannot change the negative character of the
answer which, for other reasons already set out, it has found that it must give
to Question 1.

83. The Court's answer to Question 1is, therefore, in the negative and, in
accordance with the terms of the request, it will now turn to QuestionI.

84. Question II asks the Court to state "what were the legal ties between

thisterritory"- that is,Western Sahara- "and the Kingdom of Morocco and
the Mauritanian entity". The scope of this question depends upon the
meaning tobe attached to the expression "legal ties" in thecontext of thetime
of thecolonization of the territory by Spain. That expression, however,unlike
"terranullius"in Question 1,was not a term having in itself a very precise
meaning.Accordingly, inthe view ofthe Court, themeaning of theexpression

"legal ties" inQuestion IIhas to be found rather in the object and purpose of
General Assembly resolution 3292 (XXIX), by which it was decided to
request the present advisory opinion of the Court.
85. Analysis of this resolution, asthe Court has already pointed out, shows
that the two questions contained in the request have been put to the Court in

the context of proceedings in the General Assembly directed to the
decolonization of Western Sahara in conformity with resolution 1514(XV)of
14 December 1960. During the discussion of this item, according to
resoiution 3292(XXIX), a legal controversy arose over the status of Western
Sahara at the time of its colonization by Spain; and the records of the
proceedingsmake it plain that the "legal controversy" in question concerned

pretensions put forward, on the onehand, by Morocco that the territory was
then a part of the Sherifian State and, on the other, by Mauritania that the
territory then formed part of the Bilad Shinguitti or Mauritanian entity.
Accordingly, it appears to the Court that in QuestionIIthe words "legal ties
between this territory and the Kingdom of Morocco and the Mauritanian WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 41

entity" must be understood as referring to such "legal ties" as may affect the
policy to be followed in the decolonization of Western Sahara. In this
connection, the Court cannot accept the view that the legal ties the General

Assembly had in mind in framing Question II werelimited to ties established
directly with the territory and without reference to the people who may be
found in it. Such an interpretation would unduly restrict the scope of the
question, since legal ties are normally established in relation to people.

86. TheCourt further observes that, inasmuch as Question II had itsorigin
in the contentions of Morocco and Mauritania, it was for them to satisfy the
Court in the present proceedings that legal ties existed between Western
Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco or the Mauritanian entity at thetime of
the colonization of the territory by Spain.

87. Western Sahara(RiodeOro and Sakiet El Hamra) isa territory having
very special characteristics which, at the time of colonization by Spain,
largelydetermined the way of life and social and political organization of the

peoples inhabiting it. In consequence, the legal régimeof Western Sahara,
including its legal relations with neighbouring territories, cannot properly be
appreciated without reference to these special characteristics. The territory
formspart of the great Sahara desert whichextends from theAtlantic Coastof
Africa to Egypt and the Sudan. At the time of its colonization by Spain, the
area of this desert with which the Court is concerned was being exploited,

because of its low and spasmodic rainfall, almost exclusively by nomads,
pasturing their animals or growing crops as and where conditions were
favourable. It may be said that the territory, at the time of its colonization,
had a sparsepopulation that, for the most part, consisted of nomadic tribes
the members of which traversed the desert on more or less regular routes
dictated by the seasons and the wells or water-holes available to them. In

general,the Court wasinformed, the right of pasture wasenjoyed in common
by these tribes; some areas suitable for cultivation, on the other hand, were
subject to a greater degree to separate rights. Perennial water-holes were in
principle considered the property of the tribe which put them into
commission,though their use also was open to all, subject to certain customs

as to priorities and theamount of water taken. Similarly, many tribes were
said to have their recognized burial grounds, which constituted a rallying
point for themselvesand for allied tribes.Another feature of lifein the region,
according to the information before the Court, was that inter-tribal conflict
was not infrequent.

88. Thesevarious points of attraction of a tribe to particular localitieswere
reflected in its nomadic routes. But what is important for present purposes is
the fact that the sparsity of the resources and the spasmodiccharacter of the WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 42

rainfall compelled al1those nomadic tribes to traverse very wide areas of the
desert. In consequence,the nomadic routes of none of them wereconfined to

Western Sahara; somepassed also through areas of southern Morocco, or of
present-day Mauritania or Algeria, and some eventhrough further countries.
All the tribes were of the Islamic faith and the whole territory lay within the
Dar al-Islam. In general, authority in the tribe was vested in a sheikh,bject
to the assent of the "Juma'a", that is, of an assembly of its leading members,
and the tribe had its own customary law applicable in conjunction with the

Koranic law. Not infrequently one tribe had ties with another, either of
dependence or of alliance, which wereessentiallytribal rather than territorial,
ties of allegiance or vassalage.

89. It is in the context of such a territory and such a social and political
organization of the population that theCourt has to examine the question of

the "legal ties" between Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco and
the Mauritanian entity at thetime of colonization by Spain. Attheconclusion
of the oral proceedings, as will be seen, Morocco and Mauritania took up
what was almost a common position on the answer to be given by the Court
on Question II.Thecontentions on which they respectivelybasethe legal ties

which they claim to have had with Western Sahara at the time of its
colonization by Spain are, however, different and in some degree opposed.
The Court will,therefore, examine them separately.

90. Morocco's claim to "legal ties" with Western Sahara at the time of
colonization by Spain has been put to the Court as a claim to ties of
sovereignty on the ground of an alleged immemorial possession of the
territory. This immemorial possession, it maintains, was based not on an
isolated act of occupatian but on the public display of sovereignty,

unintermpted and uncontested, for centuries.
91. In support of this claim Morocco refers to a series of eventsstretching
back to the Arab conquest of North Africa in the seventh century A.D., the
evidence of which is,understandably,for the most part taken from historical
works. The far-flung, spasmodic and often transitory character of many of
these events renders the historical material somewhat equivocal as evidence

of possession of the territory now in question. Morocco, however, invokes
interalia the decision of the Permanent Court of International Justice in the
Legal Status of Eastern Greenlandcase (P.C.I.J.,Series A/B, No. 53).
Stressing that during a long period Morocco was the only independent State
which existed in the north-west of Africa, it points to the geographical

contiguity of Western Sahara to Morocco and the desert character of the
territory. In the light ofhese considerations, it maintains that the historical
material sufficesto establishMorocco's claim to atitlebased"upon continued
display of authority" (loc.cit.,p. 45) on the same principles as those applied WESTER NAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 43

by the Permanent Court in upholding Denmark's claim to possession of the
whole of Greenland.
92. This method of formulating Morocco's claims to ties of sovereignty

with Western Sahara encounters certain difficulties.As the Permanent Court
stated in thecaseconcerningthe Legal Status of Eastern Greenland, a claim
to sovereignty based upon continued display of authority involves "two
elements each of which must be shown to exist:the intention and willto act as
sovereign, and some actual exercise or display of such authority" (ibid.,

pp. 45 f). True, the Permanent Court recognized that in thecase of claims to
sovereignty over areas in thinly populated or unsettled countries, "very little
in the way of âctual exercise of sovereign rights" (ibid., p. 46) might be
sufficient in the absence of a competing claim. But, in the present instance,
Western Sahara, ifsomewhat sparselypopulated, wasaterritory across which
socially and politically organized tribes were in constant movement and

where armed incidents between these tribes were frequent. In the particular
circumstances outlined in paragraphs 87 and 88 above, the paucity of
evidence of actual display of authority unambiguously relating to Western
Sahara renders it difficultto consider theMoroccan claim ason al1fours with
that of Denmark in the Eastern Greenlaildcase. Nor isthe difficultycured by
introducing the argument of geographical unity or contiguity. In fact, the

information before the Court shows that the geographical unity of Western
Sahara with Morocco is somewhat debatable, which also militates against
givingeffectto the concept of contiguity. Even if the geographical contiguity
of Western Sahara with Morocco could be taken into account in the present
connection, it would only make the paucity of evidence of unambiguous

display of authority with respectto Western Saharamore difficultto reconcile
with Morocco's claimto immemorial possession.

93. In the viewof theCourt, however,whatmust be of decisiveimportance

in determining its answer to Question II isnot indirect inferenceswn from
events in past history but evidence directly relating to effectiveisplay of
authority in Western Sahara at the timeof itscolonization by Spain and inthe
period immediately preceding that time (cf. Minquiers and Ecrehos,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953,p. 57). AsMorocco has also adduced specific
evidence relating to the time of colonization and the period preceding it, the

Court will now consider that evidence.

94. Morocco requests that, in appreciatingthe evidence, the Court should
take account of the special structure of the Sherifian State. No rule of
internationallaw, in the view oftheCourt, requires the structure of a State to
follow any particular pattern, as is evident from the diversity of theforms of WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 44

State found in the world today. Morocco's requestistherefore justified. Atthe
same time, where sovereignty over territory is claimed, the particular

structure of a State may be a relevant element in appreciating the reality or
otherwise of a display of State activity adduced as evidence of that
sovereignty.
95. That the Sherifian State at the time of the Spanish colonization of
Western Sahara was a State of a special character is certain. Its special
character consisted in the fact that it was founded on the common religious

bond of Islam existing among the peoples and on the allegiance of various
tribes to the Sultan, through their caids or sheikhs, rather than on the notion
of territory. Common religiouslinks have, of course,existed in many parts of
the world without signifying a legal tie of sovereignty or subordination toa
ruler. Even the Dar al-Islam, as Morocco itself pointed out in its oral

statement, knows and then knew separate Stateswithin the common religious
bond of Islam. Political ties of allegiance to a ruler, on the other hand, have
frequently formed a major element in the composition of a State. Such an
allegiance, however, if it is to afford indications of the ruler's sovereignty,
must clearly be real and manifested in acts evidencing acceptance of his
political authority. Otherwise,there willbe no genuine display or exercise of

State authority. lt follows that the special character of the Moroccan State
and the special forms in which its exercise of sovereignty may, in
consequence, have expressed itself, do not dispense the Court from
appreciating whether at the relevant time Moroccan sovereignty was
effectivelyexercised or displayed in Western Sahara.

96. It has been stated before the Court, and not disputed in the course of
the proceedings, that at the relevant period the Moroccan State consisted
partly of what was called the Bled Makhzen, areas actually subject to the
Sultan, and partly of what was called the Bled Siba, areas in which de facto
the tribes were not submissive to the Sultan. Morocco states that the two

expressions, Bled Makhzen and Bled Siba,.merely described two types of
relationship between the Moroccan local authorities and the central power,
not a territorial separation; and that the existence ofse different types did
not affect the unity of Morocco. Becauseof a common cultural heritage,the
spiritual authority of the Sultan was always accepted. Thus the difference
between the Bled Makhzen and the Bled Siba, Morocco maintains, did not

reflect a wish to challenge the existence of the central power so much as the
conditionsfor the exercise of that power; and the Bled Siba was, in practice,
a way of affecting an administrative decentralization of authority. Against
this view it is stated that what characterized the Bled Siba was that it was
not administered by the Makhzen; it did not contribute contingents to

the' Sherifian army; no taxes were collected there by the Makhzen; the
government of the people was in the hands of caids appointed by the tribes,
and their powers were derived more from the acquiescence of the tribes than
from any delegation of authority by the Sultan; even ifthese local powers did
not totally reject any connection with the Sherifian State, in reality they WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 46

100. Spain, on the otherhand, maintainsthat there isa striking absence of
any documentary evidence or other traces of a display of political authority
by Morocco with respect to Western Sahara. Theactsof appointment of caids

produced by Morocco, whether dahirs or official correspondence, do not in
Spain's view relate to Western Sahara but to areas within southern
Morocco such as the Noun and the Dra'a; nor has any document of
acceptance by the recipientsbeen adduced. Furthermore, according to Spain,
these alleged appointments ascaid wereconferred on sheikhsalready elected
by their own tribes and were, in truth, only titles of honour bestowed on

existing and defacto independent local rulers. Asto the Tekna confederation,
its two parts aresaid to have been in quite different relations to the Sultan:
only thesettledTekna, established in southern Morocco, acknowledgedtheir
political allegiance to the Sultan, while the nomadic septs of the tribe who
traversed the Western Sahara were "free" Tekna, autonomous and

independent of the Sultan. Nor was Ma ul-'Aineen, according to Spain, at
any time the personal representative of the Sultan's authority in Western
Sahara; on thecontrary, heexercised hisauthority to the south of the Dra'a in
completeindependence of the Sultan; hisrelations with the Sultan werebased
on mutual respect and a common interest in resistingFrench expansion from
the south; they were relations of equality,not political ties of allegiance or of

sovereignty.

101. Further, Spain invokestheabsence of any evidence of thepayment of
taxes by tribes of Western Sahara and denies al1possibility of such evidence

being adduced; according to Spain, it was a characteristic even of the Bled
Siba that the tribes refused to be taxed, and in Western Sahara there was no
question of taxes having been paid to the Makhzen. As to the Sultan's
expeditions of 1882and 1886,these, according to Spain, are shown by the
historical evidence never to have reached Western Sahara or even the Dra'a,
but only the Souss and the Noun; nor did they succeed in completely

subjecting even those areas; and they cannot therefore constitute evidence of
display of authority with respect to Western Sahara. Their purpose, Spain
maintains, wasto prevent commerce between Europeans and thetribes of the
Souss and Noun, and this purpose was unrelated to Western Sahara. Again,
the alleged acts of resistance in Western Sahara to foreign penetration are
said by Spain to have been nothing more than occasional raids to obtain

booty or hostages for ransom and to have nothing to do with display of
Moroccan authority. In general, both on geographical and on other grounds,
Spain questions the unity of the Saharan region with the regions of southern
Morocco.

102. Mauritania's views,in sofar as they relate to Morocco's pretensions
to have exercised sovereignty over Western Sahara at the time of its
colonization, may be summarized as follows: Mauritania does not oppose
Morocco's claim to have displayed its authority in some, more northerly, WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 47

areas oftheterritory. Thusitdoesnotdisputetheallegiance atthat timeofthe
Tekna confederation to the Sultan, nor Morocco's claim that, through the
intermediaryof Tekna caids in southern Morocco, it exerciseda measure of
authority over Tekna nomads who traversed those areas of Western Sahara.
Mauritania doesnot, however,admit theallegianceofothertribes inWestern
Saharato theSultan,as itconsidersthem tobelongto the BiladShinguitti,or

Mauritanian entity. In particular, likeSpain,itmaintains that the Regheibat
were a tribe of marabout warriors wholly independent of both the Tekna
caids and the Sultan, and that their links were rather with the tribes of the
Bilad Shinguitti.gain,Mauritania doesnot admit that themarabout sheikh,
Ma &'Aineen, represented the authority of the Sultan in Western Sahara.
Instead, it insiststhat hewasa Shinguittipersonality, whoacquiredinfluence
and renown as head of a religious brotherhood in the Bilad Shinguitti and
also became a political figure in theakiet El Hamra in the later stages of
his life. Like Spain also, Mauritania maintains that, as a political figure
organizingand leadingresistanceto Frenchpenetration, Maul-'Aineendealt
with the Sultan on a basis of CO-operationbetween equals; and that the
relation between them was not one of allegiancebut of an alliance,lasting
only until the timecame whenthe sheikhproclaimed himselfSultan.

103. TheCourt doesnot overlooktheposition oftheSultan of Moroccoas
a religious leader. In the view of the Court, however, the information and
arguments invoked by Morocco cannot, for the most part, be considered as
disposingofthedifficultiesinthewayofitsclaimto haveexercisedeffectively
interna1 sovereignty over Western Sahara. The material before the Court
appears to support the view that almost al1 the dahirs and other acts
concerning caids relate toareas situated within present-day Morocco itself
and do not in themselves provide evidenceof effectivedisplay of Moroccan
authority inWesternSahara. Nor can theinformation furnished by Morocco
be said to provide convincing evidence of the imposition or levying of
Moroccantaxes withrespectto theterritory. Asto SheikhMa ul-'Aineen,the
complexjties of his career may leave doubts as to the precise nature of his
relations with the Sultan, and different interpretations have been put upon
them. The material before the Court, taken as a whole, does not sufficeto
convince it that the activitiesof this sheikh should be considered as having

constituted adisplay of the Sultan's authority in WesternSaharaat the time
of itscolonization.
104. Furthermore, the information before the Court appears to confirm
that theexpeditionsofSultanHassan 1tothesouth in 1882 and 1886 bothhad
objectsspecificallydirectedto theSoussand the Noun and, infact,didnot go
beyond the Noun; sothat theydid not reach evenasfar asthe Dra'a,stillless
WesternSahara. Nor does the material furnished lead the Court to conclude
that the alleged acts of resistance in Western Sahara to foreign penetration
couldbeconsideredasacts ofthe Moroccan State.Similarly,thedespatch of
arms by the Sultan to Maul-'Aineenand othersto encouragetheirresistance WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 48

to French penetration to the east of Western Sahara is, in any case, open to

other interpretations than the display of the Sultan's authority. Again,
although Morocco asserts that the Regheibat tribe always recognized the
suzerainty of the Tekna confederation, and through them that of the Sultan
himself, this assertion has not been supported by any convincing evidence.
Moreover, both Spain and Mauritania insist that this tribe of marabout
warriors was wholly independent.

105. Consequently, the information before the Court does not support
Morocco's claim to have exercised territorial sovereignty over Western
Sahara. On the other hand, it does not appear to exclude the possibility that
the Sultan displayed authority over some of the tribes in Western Sahara.
That this was so with regard to the Regheibat or other independent tribes

living in the territory could clearly not be sustained. Theposition isdifferent,
however, with regard to the septs of theTekna whose routes of migration are
established as having included the territory of the Tekna caids within
Morocco as well as parts of Western Sahara. Tme, the territory of the Tekna
caids inthe Noun and the Dra'a were BledSiba at the relevantperiod and the

subordination of the Tekna caids to the Sultan was sometimesuncertain. But
the fact remains that the Noun and theDra'a wererecognized to bepart of the
Sherifian State and the Tekna caids to represent the authority of the Sultan.
No doubt, as appears from previous paragraphs, the allegiance of the
nomadic septs of the Tekna to the Tekna confederation has been in dispute in
the present proceedings. The mere fact that those Tekna septs in their

nomadic journeys spent periods of timewithintheterritory of thecaids of the
Tekna confederation appears, however, to the Court to lend support to the
view that they were subject, at least in some measure, to the authority of
Tekna caids. The Court at the same time notes that Mauritania considers
these Tekna septs to have been in "Moroccan fealty".

106. Furthermore, the material before the Court contains various
indications of some projection of the Sultan's authority to certain Tekna
tribes or septs nomadizing in Western Sahara. Such indications are, for
example, to be found in certain documents relating to the recovery of
shipwrecked seamen and other foreigners held captive by Teknas in Western
Sahara; in documents showing that on some occasions,notably the Sultan's

visits to the south in 1882 and 1886, he received the allegiance of certain
nomadic tribes which came from Western Sahara for the purpose; and in
letters from the Sultan to Tekna caids requestingthe performance of certain
acts to the south of the Noun and the Dra'a. Accordingly, and after taking
dueaccount of any contradictory indications, the Court considersthat, taken
as a whole, the information before it shows the display of some authority by

the Sultan,through Tekna caids,overthe Tekna septsnomadizing in Western
Sahara. WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 49

107. Thus, even taking account of the specific structure of the Sherifian
State, the material so far examined does not establish any tie of territorial

sovereignty between Western Sahara and that State. It does not show that
Morocco displayed effectiveand exclusive State activity in Western Sahara.
It does however provide indicationsthata legaltie of allegiancehad existed at
the relevant period between the Sultan and some, but only some, of the
nomadic peoples of the territory.

108. The Court must now examine whether its appreciation of the legal

situation which appears from a study of theinterna1acts invoked by Morocco
isaffected to any extent by a consideration of theinternational acts said by it
to show that the Sultan's sovereignty was directly or indirectly recognizedas
extending to the south of the Noun and the Dra'a. Thematerial upon which it
relies may conveniently be considered under four heads:

(a) Aseriesof Moroccan treaties, and moreespecially a treaty with Spain of
1767,and treaties of 1836,1856and 1861with the United States, Great
Britain and Spain respectively, provisions of which deal with the rescue

and safety of mariners shipwrecked on the Coast of Wad Noun or its
vicinity.

(b) A Moroccan treaty with Great Britain of 1895in whichGreat Britain, it
is claimed, recognized "the lands that are between Wad Draa and Cape

Bojador, and which are called Terfaya above named, and al1the lands
behind it" as part of Morocco.
(c) Diplomatic correspondence concerning the implementation of Article 8
of the Treaty of Tetuan of 1860and an alleged agreement with Spain of
1900relating to the cession of Ifni, which are claimed to show Spanish

recognition of Moroccan sovereignty as far southwards as Cape
Bojador.
(d) A Franco-German exchange of letters of 1911 which expressed the
understanding of the parties that "Morocco comprises al1that part of
northern Africa which is situated between Algeria, French West Africa,
and the Spanish colony of Rio de Oro".

109. The treaty provisions cited by Morocco begin with Article 18of the
Treaty of Marrakesh of 1767, the interpretation of which is in dispute

between Morocco and Spain. ThisArticleconcerned a project of the Canary
Islanders to set up a trading and fishing post on "the coasts of Wad Noun",
according to Morocco, or "to the south of the River Noun", according to
Spain,and the dispute isasto thescope of the Sultan's disavowalin Article 18
of any responsibility with respect to such a project. Morocco states that in the

Arabic text the Article has the followingmeaning: WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 50

"His Imperial Majesty warns the inhabitants of the Canaries against
any fishing expedition to the coasts of Wad Noun and beyond. He

disclaims any responsibility for thewaythey maybe treated by theArabs
of thecountry, to whom it is difficultto apply decisions,since they have
no fixed residence, travel as they wish and pitch their tents where they
choose. The inhabitants of the Canaries are certain to be maltreated by
those Arabs."

It contends, moreover, that this Arabic text is the only "official text" and
should have preference also as being the more limited interpretation. On the
basis of the Arabic text, it maintains that the Article signifiesthat the Sultan

was recognized to have the power to take decisions with respect to the
inhabitants of "Wad Noun and beyond", though it was difficultto apply his
decisions to them.
110. Spain, however, stressesthat the Spanish text of the treaty is also an
original text, which isequally authentic and has the following meaning:

"His Imperial Majesty refrains from expressing an opinion with
regard to thetrading post which HisCatholic Majesty wishesto establish
to the south of the River Noun, since he cannot take responsibility for
accidents and misfortunes, because his domination [sus dominios]does

not extend so far. ... Northwards from Santa Cruz, His Imperial
Majesty grants to the Canary Islanders and the Spaniards the right of
fishing without authorizing any other nation to do so."

It alsodisputes themeaningattributed by Morocco to thecrucial words in the
Arabic text and maintains that the meaning found in the Spanish text is

confirmed by the wording of contemporary letters sent by the Sultan to
King Carlos III, as well as other diplomatic material, and by a later
Hispano-Moroccan treaty of 1799.Morocco, it should be interposed, in its
turn questions the meaning given by Spain to certain words in the Arabic
texts of the Sultan's lettersand the767treaty. Spain, however,on thebasis of
its interpretations of the various texts, contends that Article 18of that treaty,

far from evidencing Spanish recognition of the Sultan's sovereignty to the
south of the Wad Noun, constitutes a disavowal by the Sultan himself ofany
pretensions to authority in thatregion.

111. The Court does not find it necessary to resolve the controversy
regarding the text of Article18of this earlytreaty, because a number of later

treaties, closer to the time of the colonization of Western Sahara and thus
more pertinent in the present connection, contained clauses of a similar
character, concerning mariners shipwrecked on coasts of the Wad Noun. It
confines itself, therefore, to the following observations: In so far as this, or
any other treaty provision, is relied upon by Morocco as showing
international recognition by another State of Moroccan sovereignty,it would

be difficult toconsider such international recognition as established on the
solebasis of a Moroccan text diverging materially from an authentic text of WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 51

the same treaty written in the language of the other State. In any event, the
question of international recognition which Morocco claims to be raised by
Article18 of the Treaty of1767 hinges upon the meaning to be given to such
phrases as "Wad Noun and beyond" and "to the south of the River Noun",
which is also a matter in dispute and calls for consideration in connection

with thelater treaties.
112.Article 18of the1767 treaty isindeedsuperseded for present purposes
by provisions in Article38 of the Hispano-Moroccan Treaty of Commerce
and Navigation of 20 November 1861, which itself followed the mode1 of
similar provisions in treaties signed by Morocco with the United States in
1836 and with Great Britain in 1856. The relevant provisions of the 1861

treaty ran:

"If a Spanish vessel of war or merchant ship get aground or be
wrecked onany part of the coasts of Morocco,sheshallbe respected and
assisted in every way, in conformity with the laws of friendship, and the
said vessel and everything in her shall be taken care of and returned to
her owners, or to the Spanish Consul-General... If a Spanish vesselbe
wrecked at Wad Noun or on any other part of its coast, the Sultan of

Morocco shall make use of his authority to save and protect theaster
and crew until they return to their country, and the Spanish
Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul, Consular Agent, or person
appointed by them shall be allowed to collect every information they
may require ...The Governors in the service of the Sultan of Morocco
shall likewise assist the Spanish Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul,

Consular Agent or person appointed by them, in their investigations,
according to the laws of friendship."

Morocco considers that these provisions, and similar provisions in other
treaties, recognize the existence of Moroccan authorities in theoun and
Western Sahara, in the form of Governors in the service of the Sultan of
Morocco, and also the effectivepossibilities of action byose Governors. It

also argues that they recognize Moroccan sovereigntyover Western Sahara
because under Article 38 the Spanish authorities receive permission to
enquire into the fate of shipwrecked mariners and derive that permission
from the Sultan.
113. Morocco further considers that this view of the treaty provisions is
confirmed by Spanish diplomatic documents relating to the recovery in1863
of nine sailors from the Spanish vessel Esmeralda who had been captured,

while fishing,by "Moors of the frontier coast". According to the documents,
this incident occurred "more than 180 miles south of Cape Noun" and the
Moors had demanded a ransom. The Spanish Minister of State had then
instructed the Spanish Minister in Morocco to makethe necessary request to
the Sultan, pursuant to Article38 of the1861 treaty, "to use his powers to
rescue the captive sailors". In due course theailors were reported to have

been freed and to be in the hands of Sheikh Beyrouk of the Noun; and the WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 52

Spanish Minister in Morocco was authorized to make a gift to the sheikh as a
mark of gratitude.

114. Spain, on the other hand, claims that the origin of the shipwreck
clauses was directly connected with thestate of insubordination in the Souss
and the Noun, and stresses that the treaties contained two systems of rescue
and protection. One system, which it calls the general system, provided for

areas where the Sultan did exercise his authority and undertook to use his
normal powers to protect the shipwrecked. The other was a special régimefor
the Wad Noun. If a vesse1wereshipwrecked at the Wad Noun or beyond, the
treaty provisions gave a different answer as to the duty of the Sultan. In that
case, he did not "order" or "protect" but undertook to try to liberate the
shipwrecked persons so faras he was able; and in order to do that he would

usehisinfluence withthe peoplesneighbouring on hisrealm and negotiate the
ransoming of the sailors, usually with the local authorities. It was not, Spain
considers, a matter of his exercising his own authority.

115. Spain also refers to various diplomatic documents relating to the

recovery of sailors from a number of shipwrecked vesselsas confirming the
above interpretation of the clauses. Those documents, it States,show that in
al1those cases,including that of theEsmeralda, it was the intervention of the
Beyrouk family, the sheikhs of the Wad Noun, which was decisive for the
liberation of the captives, and that they negotiated directly with the Spanish

Consul at Mogador. In one case, according to these documents, Sheikh
Beyrouk informed the Spanish authorities that he had resisted the Sultan's
efforts to wrest the prisoners from him and that their liberation had been
achieved only when he himself had "negotiated the affair with the Spanish
nation". According to Spain, this evidence indicates that to the north of
Agadir the power of the Sultan was exercised and the Sultan could give

orders; from Agadir to the south, in the Souss, the Noun and the Dra'a, the
Sultan negotiated with local powers, hecould not giveorders; and this, Spain
says,explains the cardinal role played by Sheikh Beyrouk in these matters.
116. Implicit in Morocco's clairn that these treaties signify international
recognition of the exercise of its sovereignty in Western Sahara is the
proposition that phrases such as "the coasts of Wad Noun", "to the south of

Wad Noun" or "Wad Noun and beyond" are apt to comprise Western
Sahara. This proposition it advances on the basis that "Wad Noun" was a
term used with two meanings: one narrow and restricted to the Wad Noun
itself,theother wider and covering not only the Wad Noun but the Dra'a and
the Sakiet El Hamra. This wider meaning, it indicates, wastheone with which

the term was used in Moroccan documents and treaties. Spain, on the other
hand, maintains that no evidencehas been adduced to demonstrate the useof
the term Wad Noun withthat specialmeaning, that there isno trace of it inthe
cartography of the period and that the testimony of travellers and explorers is
conclusive as to the geographical separation of the Wad Noun countryfrom WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 53

the Sakiet El Hamra. It isfor Morocco to demonstrate convincinglythe useof
the term with that special meaning (cf. Legal Status of Eastern Greenland,
P.C.I.J.,SeriesA/B, No. 53,p. 49) and this demonstration, in the view ofthe
Court, is lacking.
117. In the particular case of the Esmeralda ; as the Court has already
noted, Morocco points to documents showing a request by Spain to the

Sultan in 1863for the application of Article 38of theTreaty of 1861in respect
of an incident which had occurred more than 180miles to the south of Cape
Noun. That incident may, therefore, be invoked as indicating Spain's
recognition of the applicability of the treaty provision in relation to that part
of the Coastof Western Sahara. But those documents, especially when read
together with further documents before the Court relating to the same

incident, do not appear to warrant the conclusion that Spain thereby also
recognized the Sultan's territorial sovereignty over that part of Western
Sahara. Thedocuments, and the whole incident, appear rather ta confirmthe
view that Article 38, and other similar provisions, concerned, instead, the
exercise of the personal authority or influence of the Sultan, through the

Tekna caids of the Wad Noun, to negotiate the ransom of the shipwrecked
sailors from the tribe holding them captive to the south of the Wad Noun.
Clearly, Morocco is correct in saying that these provisions would have been
pointless ifthe other State concerned had not considered the Sultan to be in a
position to exercisesome authority or influenceover the people holding the
sailors captive. But it is a quite different thing to maintain that those

provisions implied international recognition by the other State concerned of
the Sultan as territorial sovereign in Western Sahara.
118. Examination of the provisions discussed above shows therefore, in
the view of the Court, that they cannot be considered as implying
international recognition of the Sultan's territorial sovereignty in Western
Sahara. It confirms that they are to be understood as concerned with the

display of the Sultan's authority or influence in Western Sahara only in terms
of tiesof allegiance or of personal influencein respect of someof the nomadic
tribes of the territory.

119. The Anglo-Moroccan Agreement of 13 March 1895 is invoked by
Morocco as evidencing specific international recognition by Great Britain
that Moroccan territory reached as far south as Cape Bojador. This treaty
concerned the purchase by the Sultan from the North-West African
Company of the trading-station which had been set up at Cape Juby some

years previously by agreements made between Mr. Donald Mackenzie and
Sheikh Beyrouk. The treaty of 1895provided interalia that, if the Moroccan
Government bought thetrading-station from the Company,"no one willhave
any clairn to the lands that are between Wad Draa and Cape Bojador, and
which are calledTerfaya above named, and al1the lands behind it,because al1
this belongs to the territory of Morocco". A further clause provided that the WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 54

Moroccan Government in turn undertook that "they willnot giveany part of
the above-named lands to any-one whatsoeverwithout the concurrence of the
English Government". Morocco asks the Court to see these provisions as
constituting expressrecognition by Great Britainof Moroccan sovereignty at
the relevant period inal1the land between the Wad Dra'a and Cape Bojador

and the hinterland.
120. The difficulty with this interpretation of t1895 treaty is that it is
at variance with the facts as shown in the diplomatic correspondence
surrounding the transaction concerning the Mackenzie trading-station;
Numerous documents relating to this transaction and presented to the Court
show that the position repeatedlytaken by Great Britain was that Cape Juby
was outside Moroccan territory, which in its viewdid not extend beyond the

Dra'a. In the light of this material theprovisions of1895 treaty invoked by
Morocco appearto the Court to represent an agreement by Great Britain not
to question in future any pretensions of the Sultan to the lands between the
Dra'a and Cape Bojador, and not a recognition by Great Britain of
previously existing Moroccan sovereignty over those lands. In short, what
those provisions yielded to the Sultan wasacceptance by Great Britain not of
his existingsovereignty but of his interest in that area.

121. Morocco also asks the Court to find indications of Spanish
recognition of Moroccan sovereignty southwards as far as Cape Bojador in
diplomatic material concerning theimplementation of Article 8of theTreaty
of Tetuan of 1860 and an agreement of 1900 alleged to have been concluded
with Spain inthat connection. ByArticle 8 of theTreaty of Tetuan, theSultan
had agreed to concede to Spain "in perpetuity, on the Coastof theOcean, near

Santa Cruz la Pequefia, the territory sufficient for the construction of a
fisheriesestablishment, as Spain possessed in prior times". Morocco invokes
a diplomatic Note of 19 October 1900 from the Spanish Ambassador in
Brussels to the Belgian Foreign Minister, which referred to instructions
having been given to the Spanish representative in Tangier "to negotiate an
exchange between the port of Ifni and anotherport situated between Ifni and
Cape Bojador as well as the cession of the city of Terfaya between the Dra'a

and Cape Bojador ...".In the same year a publication in Spain appeared to
givesome substance to the suggestion that as a result ofhose negotiations a
protocol had been concluded in this connection.
122. Spaiq however, denies altogether the existence of any such protocol,
which, it argues, Morocco could not have failed to produce if it had been
concluded; for Morocco itself would have been one of the parties to this
allegedagreement. Anexamination of itsarchives,Spain States,showsthat no
agreement was concluded at the time of the mission, although the press

published erroneous news on the subject at the time. Mauritania also voices
strong doubts as to the existence of the alleged protocol. Itlfurther says: WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 55

"In the absence of direct evidence, and faced with second-hand
references, which are geographically vague and general, it is difficultto
expressa viewon thequestion, and in particular to draw anyconclusions
as to territorial recognitions by the Spanish G~vernment.~'

123. The doubts raised by both Spain and Mauritania as to the alleged
protocol of 1900have not been dispelled by-thematerial before the Court.
The Court is not, therefore, able to take the possible existence of such a

document into account.

124. There remains the exchange of letters annexed to the Agreement

between France and Germany of 4 November 1911,which Morocco presents
as recognition by those Powers of Moroccan sovereignty over the Sakiet El
Hamra. In Article 1 of the Agreement Germany undertook not to interfere
with the action of France in Morocco. The exchange of letters then further
provided that:

"Germany willnot intervene in any special agreements which France
and Spain may think fit to conclude with each other on the subject of
Morocco, it being understood that Morocco comprises al1that part of
northern Africa which is situated between Algeria, French West Africa

and the Spanish colony of Rio de Oro."
It is on these last words that Morocco relies;and it maintains that, whatever

construction is put upon the exchange of letters, those words mean that the
agreement recognized that the Sakiet El Hamra belonged to Morocco. In
support of this contention, it refers to certain diplomatic letters which are
claimed to show that, when France and Germany drew up theexchange, they
meant "to posit the principle that the Sakiet El Hamra was part of Moroccan
territory".

125. Spain, on the other hand, points to Article 6 of the earlier
Franco-Spanish Convention of 3 October 1904,which stated:

"... the Government of the French Republic acknowledges that Spain
has henceforward full liberty of action in regard to the territory

comprised between the 26" and 27" 40' north latitude and the 11th
meridian Westof Paris, which are outside the limits of Morocco".

It further points to Article 2 of the Franco-Spanish Convention of
27 November 1912 as providing expressly that Article 6 of the 1904
Convention wasto "remain effective". In those two Conventions, it observes,
France clearlyrecognized that the Sakiet El Hamra was "outside the limitsof
Morocco". At the same time, it contests the viewexpressed by Morocco in the
proceedings that these Conventions are not opposable to Morocco. It also

draws attention to other diplomatic material relating to the 1911 exchange WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 56

of letters and claimed by it to show that this was concerned with
Franco-German relations and not with the existing frontier of Morocco.

126. In thepresent connection, the Court emphasizes,thequestion at issue
isnot theSpanish position in the Sakiet El Hamra but the alleged recognition
by other States of Moroccan sovereigntyover the Sakiet El Hamra at the time
of colonization by Spain. Accordingly the question of how far any of these

agreements may or may not be opposable to any of the Statesconcerned does
not arise. The various international agreements referred to by Morocco and
Spain are of concern to the Court only in so far as they rnay contain
indications of such recognition. These agreements, in the opinion of the
Court, are of limitedvalue in this regard; for was not their purpose either to
recognize an existing sovereignty over a territory or to deny its existence.

Their purpose, in their different contexts, was rather to recognizeor reserve
forone or both parties a "sphere of influence" asunderstood in thepractice of
that time. In other words, one party granted to the other freedom of action in
certain defined areas, or promised non-interference in an area claimed by the
other party. Suchagreements wereessentiallycontractual incharacter. This is

why one party might be found acknowledging in 1904,vis-à-vis Spain, that
the Sakiet El Hamra was "outside the limits of Morocco" in order to allow
Spain full liberty of action in regard to that area, and yet employing a
differentgeographical description of Morocco in 1911in order to ensure the
complete exclusion of Germany from that area.

127. In consequence, the Court finds difficulty in accepting the
Franco-German exchange of letters of 1911asconstituting recognition of the
limits of Morocco rather than of the sphere of France's political interests
vis-à-visGermany.

128. Examination of the various elements adduced by Morocco in the
present proceedings does not, therefore, appearto the Court to establish the
international recognition by other States of Moroccan territorial sovereignty
in Western Sahara at the time of the Spanish colonization. Some elements,
however,moreespeciallythe material relating to the recovery of shipwrecked
sailors, do provide indications of international recognition at the time of

colonization of authority or influence of the Sultan, displayed throughekna
caids of the Noun, over some nomads in Western Sahara.

129. The inferences to be drawn from the information before the Court
concerning interna1acts of Moroccan sovereignty and from that concerning
international acts are, therefore, in accord in not providing indications of the
existence, at the relevant period, of any legal tie of territorial sovereignty WESTERNSAHARACADVISORYOPINION) 57

between Western Sahara and the Moroccan State. At the same time, they are
in accord in providing indications of a legal tie of allegiance between the

Sultan and some, though only some, of the tribes of the territory, and in
providing indications of some display of the Sultan's authority or influence
with respect to those tribes. Before attempting, however, to formulate more
precisely itsconclusions as to the answer to be givento Question II in thecase
of Morocco, theCourt must examinethesituationinthe territory at the time
of colonization in relation to the Mauritanian entity. This is so because the

"legal ties" invoked by Mauritania overlap with those invoked by Morocco.

130. The Court will therefore now take up the question of what were

the legal ties which existed between Western Sahara, at the time of its
colonization by Spain, and the Mauritanian entity. As the very formulation
of Question II implies,the position of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania in
relation to Western Sahara at that date differs from that of Morocco for the
reason that there was not then any Mauritanian State in existence. In
the present proceedings Mauritania has expressly accepted that the

"Mauritanian entity" did not then constitute a State; and alsothatthe present
statehood of Mauritania "is not retroactive". Consequently, it isclear that it
is not legal ties of State sovereignty with whichtheCourt is concerned in the
case of the "Mauritanian entity" but other legal ties. It also follows that
the first point for the Court's consideration is the legal nature of the

"Mauritanian entity" with which WesternSahara isclaimed by Mauritania to
have had those legal ties at the time of colonization by Spain.

131. The term "Mauritanian entity", as appears from the information

before the Court, is a term first employed during the session of the General
Assembly in 1974at which resolution 3292(XXIX) was adopted.This term,
Mauritania maintains, was used by the General Assembly to denote the
cultural,geographical and socialentity which existedat thetime in the region
of Western Sahara and within whichthe Islamic Republic of Mauritania was
later to be created. That such isthe sensein whichthe term isused in Question

II has not been disputed.
132. Explaining its concept of the Mauritanian entity at the time of the
colonization of Western Sahara, Mauritania has stated:

(a) Geographically, the entity covered a vast region lying between, on the
east, the meridian of Timbuktu and, on the West,the Atlantic, and
bounded onthe south by the Senegal riverand on thenorth by theWad WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 58

Sakiet El Hamra. In the eyes both of its own inhabitants and of the
Arabo-Islamic communities, that region constituted a distinct entity.

That entity was the Bilad Shinguitti, or Shinguitti country, which
constituted a distinct human unit, characterizedby a common language,
way of life and religion. It had a uniform social structure, composed of
three "orders": warriortribes exercisingpolitical power; marabout tribes
engaged in religious,teaching, cultural, judicial and economic activities;
client-vassal tribes under the protection of a warrior or marabout tribe.

Afurther characteristic of the Bilad Shinguitti was the much freer status
of women than in neighbouring Islamic societies. The most significant
feature of the Bilad Shinguitti wasthe importance given to themarabout
tribes, who created a strong written cultural tradition in religiousstudies,
education, literature and poetry; indeed, its fame in the Arab world

derived fromthe reputation acquired by its scholars.

133. According to Mauritania, two types of political authority werefound
in the Bilad Shinguitti: the emirates and the tribal groups not formed into

emirates. The major part of the Shinguitti country was composed of the four
Emirates of theTrarza, the Brakna,the Tagant and theAdrar, wherethetown
of Shinguit issituated.This town wasboth thecentre of Shinguitticulture and
a crossroads of thecaravan trade, sothatthe Emirate of theAdrar became the
pole of attraction for theimportant nomadic tribes of theSahara. At the time
of the Spanish colonization of Western Sahara, Mauritania maintains, the

Emir of the Adrar was the principal political figure of the north and
north-west Shinguitti country, and possessed "an influence extending from
the Sakiet El Hamra to the Senegal". In this connection, it invokes the
testimony of the Spanish explorer, Captain Cervera, who in 1886concluded
with the Emir at 'Ijila treaty by which, had it been ratified, Spain would have

been recognized as sovereign of the whole Adrar at-Tmarr. He had reported
at the time that it was thanks to the Emir that several tribal chiefs were
assembled at 'Ijil; that it was under the Emir's protection that the Spanish
delegation had been ableto attend the meeting safely; and that the parties to
the two treaties concluded on that occasion included chiefs not only of tribes
of the Adrar but also of tribesfrom Westof the Emirate, Le.,fromthe territory

of the Rio de Oro.
134. In addition to the four emirates, Mauritania mentions a number of
other tribal groups, not formed into emirates, which existed in Western
Sahara at the time of its colonization by Spain. Among these it names as
the main tribes the 'Aroussiyeen, Oulad Deleim, Oulad Bu-Sba', Ahil
Barik-Allah and Regheibat. It maintains that al1these tribes and the four

emirates themselves were both autonomous and independent, not ack-
nowledging any tie of political allegiance to the Sultan of Morocco. Their
independence, it States,is shown by the numerous treaties which theysigned
with foreign Powers, and by the factthat "the emirs, sheikhs and other tribal WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 59

chiefs were riever invested by outside authorities and always derived their
powers from the special rules governing the devolution of power in the

Shinguitti entity". Each emirate and tribal group was autonomously
administered by its ruler, whose appointment and important acts were
subject to the assent of the assembly of the Juma'a.

135. Mauritania recognizesthat theemirates and thetribes werenot under
any common hierarchical structure. "In this respect", it has said:

"...the Shinguitti entity could not be assimilated to a State, nor to a
federation, nor even to a confederation, unless one saw fit to give that
name to the tenuous political ties linking the various tribes".

Within the entity there were "great confederations of tribes, or emirates

whose influence, in the form sometimes of vassalage and sometimes of
alliance, extended far beyond their own frontiers". Even so, Mauritania
recognizes that this is not a sufficient basis for saying that "the Shinguitti
entity was endowed with international personality, or enjoyed any
sovereignty as the word was understood at that time".
136. The Bilad Shinguitti, according to Mauritania, was a community

having its own cohesion, its own special characteristics, and a common
Saharan law concerning the use of water-holes, grazing lands and
agricultural lands, the regulation of inter-tribal hostilities and the settlement
of disputes. Within this community:

"It was inrealitythe component entities which wereendowed with the
legal personalities or sovereignties, Save in so far as these had been
wholly or partly alienated, by ties of vassalageor alliance, to other such
components. The sovereignty of the different component entities

obviouslyderived from their practice";

eachbody, as master of a territory, ensured theprotection of theterritory and
of itssubjectsagainst acts of war or pillageand, correspondingly, itsr had
the duty to safeguard outsiders who sought his protection.hen the emirs or
sheikhsformed alliances with or waged war on one another, it wasa question
of relations between equals. But the existence of the community became
apparent when its independence was threatened, as is shown, in the viewof

Mauritania, by the concerted effort made by the tribes throughout the
Shinguitti country to resist French penetration.

137. At the same time, Mauritania lays emphasis on the special
characteristics of the Saharan area and thenomadic existence of many of the

tribes which have already been referred to in this Opinion. Life in the arid
areas of the Shinguitti country, it observes, required the continuous quest for
suitable pastures and water-holes; and each tribe had a well-defined
migration area with established migration routes determined by the location WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 60

of water-holes, burial grounds, cultivated areas and pastures. The colonial
Powers, it further observes, in drawing frontiers took no account of these

human factors and in particular of the tribal territories and migration routes,
whichwere,as a result,bisected and eventrisected by those artificialfrontiers.
Nevertheless, the tribes of necessity continued to make their traditional
migrations, traversing the Shinguitti country comprised within the territory
of the present-day Islamic Republic of Mauritania and Western Sahara. The
same families and their properties were to be found on either side of the

artificialfrontier. Some wells,lands and burial grounds of the Rio de Oro, for
example, belonged to Mauritanian tribes, while watering places and palm
oasesin what isnow part of the Islamic Republic weretheproperties of tribes
of Western Sahara. These facts of life in the region, it points out, were
recognizedby France and Spain, which,in 1934,concluded an administrative

agreement to prevent any obstacles to the nomadic existence of the tribes.

138. If it is thought necessary to have recourse to verbal classifications,
Mauritania suggeststhat the concepts of "nation" and of "people" would be
the most appropriate to explain the position of the Shinguitti people at the
time of colonization; they wouldmost nearly describe an entity which despite

its political diversity bore the characteristics of an independent nation, a
people formed of tribes, confederations and emirates jointly exercising
CO-sovereigntyover the Shinguitti country.

139. As to the legal ties between Western Sahara and the Mauritanian
entity, the views of Mauritania are as follows: At the time of Spanish
colonization, the Mauritanian entity extended from the Senegal river to the
Wad Sakiet El Hamra. That being so, the part of the territories now under
Spanish administration which lie "to the south of the Wad Sakiet El Hamra

was an integral part of the Mauritanian entity". The legal relation between
the part under Spanish administration and the Mauritanian entity was,
therefore, "thesimple one of inclusion". At that time,theBilad Shinguitti was
an entity united by historical, religious, linguistic, social, cultural and legal
ties, and it formed a community having its own cohesion. The territories

occupied by Spain, on the otherhand, did not form an entity of their own and
did not have any identity. The part to the south of the Wad Sakiet El Hamra
was, legally speaking, part of the Mauritanian entity. That part and the
present territory of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania together constitute
"the indissociable parts of the Mauritanian entity".

140. Inthe light of theforegoing, Mauritania asksthe Court to findthat "at
the time of colonization by Spain the part of the Sahara now under Spanish
administration did have legal ties with the Mauritanian entity". At the same WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 61

time, it takes the position that where the Mauritanian entity ended the
Kingdom of Morocco began. It also makes clear that the finding which it
requests is limited to thepart of Western Sahara to thesouth of the Sakiet El
Hamra, subject to someoverlapping between the legaltiesof the Mauritanian

entity and those of Morocco solelywhere they met,owing to the overlapping
of the nomadic routes of their respective tribes.

141. Spain considers that there are a number of obstacles in the way
of accepting the views of the Islamic Republic. The Bilad Shinguitti or
Shinguitti entity, it says, by no means coincides with what is called the
Mauritanian entity. In itsbroadest sense,the Bilad Shinguitti isthearea of an
Islamaic culture, and it is a cultural and religious centre which had a certain
influence up to the sixteenth century. Spain finds it impossible, however, to

accept that a cultural phenomenon, limited in time and space, could be
identical with an alleged entity of which the significance was mainly
geographical and which had wider limits: Shinguit's religiousand cultural
influence and its fame in the Islamic world is not to be confused with the
political hegemony of the Emirate of the Adrar which, when it came into
being in the eighteenth century, included the town of Shinguit in itsrders.

142. Again, inthe viewof Spain,the ideaof an entity must expressnot only
a belonging but alsotheidea that thecomponentparts are homogeneous. The
Mauritanian entity, however, is said to have been formed of heterogeneous
components, some being mere tribes and others having a more complex
degree of integration, such as an emirate. As to the Emirate of the Adrar,

which is claimed to have been the nucleus of the Mauritanian entity, Spain
maintains that it was a region distinct and independent from al1 those
surrounding it, politically, socially and economically. Spain considers it to
have constituted a centre of autonomous power distinct both from the other
emirates inthe south and fromtheindependent nomad tribes in thenorth and
West. Furthermore, at the period of colonization of Western Sahara, this

emirate, according to Spain, wasundergoing grave interna1troubles and also
being harassed by the neighbouring Emirates of the Trarza and the Tagant,
and Spain describes the region as having then been in a state of anarchy.

143. Another difficulty, according to Spain, is that the concept of a
Mauritanian entity is not accompanied by proof of any tie of allegiance

between the tribes inhabiting the territory of Western Sahara and the
Mauritanian tribes or between the tribes of the territory and the Emirate of
the Adrar. Far from merging into or disappearing within the framework of
the so-called Mauritanian entity, Spain maintains, the tribes of Western
Sahara led their own life independently of the other Saharan tribes. In its

view,there isan almost totallack ofevidence whichmight givesupport to the
Mauritanian argument over and above the mere sociological facts about
nomadic life. WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 62

144. As to the agreements concluded by the independent tribes of the
Sahara with Spanish explorers and with France, Spain considers those
documents to run counter to the thesis that there was a "Mauritanian entitv"

in which tribes of Western Sahara were integrated. It regards the texts of the
two treatiessigned a 'Ijilon 12July 1886,one with the independent tribes and
the other withthe Emir, as decisiveon thispoint. The firstwasconcluded with
the tribes living in the area between the Atlantic and the western slopes of the
Adrar, who ceded to Spain "al1territories between the Coastof the Spanish

possessions of theAtlantic between Cape Bojador and Cabo Blanco and the
western boundary of the Adrar"; the second treaty was concluded with the
Emir and "recognizes Spanish sovereignty over the whole territory of the
Adrar at-Tmarr". Theexistence of thesetwo separate treaties, in Spain'sview,
evidences not only the total independence of those tribes and of the Emirate,

but alsotheir independence of each other; and it further proves that the Emir
may haveexertedinfluence but never political authority overthose tribes.The
independence of the tribes as between themselves is held by Spain to be also
shown by the signature of the 1884treaty by one tribe alone w%hthe explorer
Bonelli.Furthermore, otherparticipants in this allegedentity, the Emirates of
the Brakna, Trarza and Tagant and thetribes of theHodh, signed with France

a long series of treaties throughout the nineteenth century. Spain therefore
finds it difficult to appreciatethe coherence of the alleged Shinguittientity.

145. Furthermore Spain rejects the proposition, bound up with the
concept of the Mauritanian entity advanced by Mauritania,that the territory

under Spanish administration did not itself form an entity or possess an
identity of its own. It considers that what is the present territory of Western
Sahara was the foundation of a Saharan people with its own well-defined
character, made up of autonomous tribes, independent of any external
authority; and that this people lived in a fairly well-defined area and had
developed an organization and a system of life in common, on the basis of

collectiveself-awareness and mutual solidarity. In Western Sahara, it says, a
clear distinction was made by the population and in literature between their
own country, thecountry of the nomads, and other neighbouring countries of
a sedentary way of life, such as Shinguitti,Tishit and Timbuktu. The land of
the settled people coincided to a large extent, in the north, with the historic
frontiers of Morocco and, in the south, with the Emirate of the Adrar

at-Tmarr. There wasthus, according to Spain, a Sahrawipeople at thetime of
colonization, coherent and distinct from the Mauritanian emirates; and this
people in no way regarded itselfaspart of theBilad Shinguitti or Mauritanian
entity.
146. Another legal difficulty, according to Spain, is that the Islamic

Republic could not be regarded as the direct successor to the alleged
historical Mauritanian entity; for the notion of Mauritania was born in 1904
at a time whenthe territory of Western Sahara issaid by Spain already to have
had an existence well established in fact and in law. WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 63
147. On thebasis of the foregoingconsiderations, Spain maintains that at
thetimeofcolonization bySpainthere werenolegaltiesbetweentheterritory
of WesternSahara and the Mauritanian entity.

* *

148. In the caseconcerning Reparationfor InjuriesSufered inthe Service
ofthe UnitedNations, the Court observed: "The subjects of law in any legal
system are not necessarily identical in their nature or in thetent of their
rights, and their naturedepends upon the needs of the community" (Z.C.J.
Reports 1949,p. 178).Inexaminingthepropositionsof Mauritania regarding
the legalnature ofthe BiladShinguitti orMauritanian entity,theCourt gives
full weightboth to that observation and to the specialcharacteristics of the
Saharan region and peoples with which the present proceedings are
concerned. Somecriterion has, however,to be employedto determinein any
particular case whether whatconfronts the lawisor isnot legallyan "entity".
The Court, moreover,notes that in the Reparationcasethe criterion whichit
applied wasto enquire whetherthe United Nations Organization - theentity
involved - wasin "such a position that it possesses,in regard to its Members,
rights which itis entitled to ask them to respect"bid.).In that Opinion, no
doubt, thecriterion wasapplied in asomewhatspecialcontext. Nevertheless,
it expressesthe essential test wherea group, whether composed of States, of
tribes or of individuals, is claimed to be a legal entity distinct from its
members.

149. Inthepresent case,theinformation beforetheCourt disclosesthat,at
the time of the Spanish colonization, there existed many ties of a racial,
linguistic,religious,cultural and economicnature between varioustribesand
emirateswhosepeoplesdweltintheSaharan regionwhichtoday iscomprised
within the Territory of Western Sahara and the Islamic Republic of
Mauritania. It also discloses,however,the independence of theemirates and
many of the tribes in relation to one another and, despite some forms of
common activity, the absence among them of any common institutions or
organs,evenofa quiteminimalcharacter.Accordingly,theCourt isunableto
find that the information before it provides any basis for considering the
emiratesand tribeswhichexistedinthe regionto haveconstituted, inanother
phrase used by the Court in the Reparationcase, "an entity capable of
availing itselfof obligations incumbent upon its Members" (ibid.).Whether
theMauritanian entity isdescribedasthe Bilad Shinguitti,or astheShinguitti
"nation", as Mauritania suggests,or as some form of league or association,
the difficultyremains that it did not have the character of a personality or
corporate entitydistinctfromthe severalemiratesand tribeswhichcomposed
it.The proposition, therefore, that the Bilad Shinguittishould be considered
as having been a Mauritanian "entity" enjoyingsome formof sovereigntyin
Western Sahara isnot one that can be sustained. WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 64

150. In the light of the above considerations, the Court must conclude that
at the time of colonization by Spain there didnot exist between theterritory

of Western Sahara and the Mauritanian entity any tie of sovereignty, or of
allegiance of tribes, or of "simple inclusion" in thesame legal entity.

151. Thisconclusion does not, however,mean thatthe reply to Question II
should necessarily be that at the time of colonization by Spain no legal tiesat
al1 existed between the territory of Western Sahara and the Mauritanian
entity. The languageemployed by the General Assembly inQuestion IIdoes
not appear to theCourt to confinethe question exclusivelyto those legal ties

which imply territorial sovereignty. On thecontrary, the useof the expression
"legal ties" in conjunction with "Mauritanian entity" indicates that Question
IIenvisages the possibility of other ties of a legal character. To confine the
question to ties of sovereignty would, moreover, be to ignore the special
characteristics of the Saharan region and peoples to whichreference has been
made in paragraphs 87 and 88 above, and also to disregard the possible

relevance of other legal ties to the various procedures concerned in the
decolonization process.

152. Theinformation before theCourt makes itclear that the nomadism of

the great rnajority of the peoples of Western Sahara at the time of its
colonization gave rise to certain ties of a legal character between the tribes of
the territory and those of neighbouring regions of the Bilad Shinguitti. The
migration routes of almost al1the nomadic tribes of Western Sahara, the
Court was informed. crossed what wereto become the colonial frontiers and
traversed, inter alia,substantial areas of what is today the territory of the

Islamic Republic of Mauritania. The tribes, in their migrations, had grazing
pastures, cultivated lands, and wells or water-holes in both territories, and
their burial grounds in one or other territory. These basic elements of the
nomads' way of life, as stated earlier in this Opinion, were in some measure
the subject of tribal rights, and their use was in general regulated by customs.

Furthermore, therelations between al1thetribes of the region in such matters
as inter-tribal clashes and the settlement of disputes were also governed by a
body of inter-tribal custom. Beforethe timeof Western Sahara's colonization
by Spain, those legal tiesneither hadnor couldhaveany other source than the
usages of the tribes themselves or Koranic law. Accordingly, although the
Bilad Shinguitti has not been shown to have existed as a legal entity, the

nomadic peoples of theShinguitticountry should, in the viewof the Court,be
considered as having in the relevant period possessed rights,includingsome
rights relating to the lands through which they migrated. These rights, the
Court concludes, constituted legal ties between the territory of Western
Sahara and the "Mauritanian entity", this expression being taken to denote WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) .65

thevarioustribeslivingintheterritories ofthe BiladShinguittiwhicharenow
comprised within the Islamic Republic of Mauritania. They were ties which
knew no frontier between the territories and were vital to the very
maintenance of lifein the region.

153. In the oral proceedings,Morocco and Mauritania both laid stresson
the overlapping character of the respective legal ties which they claim
WesternSaharato havehad withthem at the timeof colonization.Although

theviewoftheCourtasto thenature of thosetiesdiffersinimportant respects
from those of the two Statesconcerned, the Court is of the opinion that the
overlapping character of the ties of the territory with Morocco and the
"Mauritanian entity", as defined by the Court, calls for consideration in
connection withQuestion IIThisisbecausetheoverlappingcharacter ofthe
ties appears to the Court to be a significant element in appreciating their
scope and implications.
154. The views of Morocco and Mauritania appear to have evolved
considerably since their respective claims to special links with Western
Sahara werefirstraisedin the United Nations. It suffices,for the purposes of
this Opinion, to note their viewsas finallyformulated before the Court.

155. Morocco'sviews wereexplained as follows:

"Morocco assertsthe exerciseof its sovereignty,but it does not deny,
in so doing, that legal ties of another nature, no less essential having
regardtothequestionput totheCourt and totheformsofpoliticallifein
the region concerned at the time of Spanish colonization, may be
asserted by Mauritania. '
...............................

the sovereignty invoked by Morocco and the legal ties invoked by
Mauritania wereexercisedon nomadic tribes and had their firstimpact
on human beings. Of course,these human beings traced in their travels
the outline of a territorial entity but,cause of the very nature of the
relationships between man and the land, some geographical over-
lappings wereinevitable.
When Morocco cites dahirs addressed to geographical destinations
extending to Cabo Blanco, it is relying on documents attesting the
allegianceof tribes findingthemselvesat given timesat certain points in

their nomadic itineraries. But itdoes not mean thereby to claim that,
viewedfrom the standpoint of thedestination of the dahir, thestrongest
link wasnot with the Mauritanian entity. WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 66

Conversely, Morocco does not consider that geographical reference
by Mauritania to the outer limits of the nomadic itineraries of
Mauritanian tribesrulesoutthepredominance ofMoroccan sovereignty
in thoseareas.
In short, there isa north and there isa south whichjuxtapose in space
the legal tiesof Western Sahara with Morocco and with Mauritania."

Amplifyingthis explanation, Morocco said:
"...when Morocco refersto Cabo Blanco and VillaCisneros in stating
arguments of ageneralcharacter, it isnot intending thereby to maintain
that itssovereigntyextended overthoseregionsatthetimeoftheSpanish
colonization; forattheperiod under consideration thoseregionswerean
integral part of the Mauritanian entity,to whichthe IslamicRepublicof
Mauritania isthe solesuccessor."

156. The viewsof Mauritania wereexplained as follows:

"...the Governments of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania and of the
Kingdom of Morocco recognize that there is a north appertaining to
Morocco, a south appertaining to Mauritania and that there are some
overlappings as a result of the intersection of the nomadic routes from
the north and from the south. Asa result,therefore,there isno no-man's
land between the influence of Morocco and that of the Mauritanian
entity..."
"The areas of overlap which have been referred to before the Court
implied the superimposition of the Mauritanian entity, the Shinguitti
entity, and theKingdom of Morocco,solely where theymet.

Thus the mention of Cabo Blanco and Villa Cisneros by Morocco
cannot signifythat thoseregionswere,at the timeofcolonization, under
Moroccan sovereignty,aswasconceded ...on 25July ...Similarly,the
fact that there may have been this or that Mauritanian nomadic
migration in the region of the Sakiet El Hamra cannot be regarded as
implying any dispute as to the fact that that region appertains to
the Kingdom of Morocco, which, in the view of the Mauritanian
Government, did not end at the limits of the Makhzen."
157. It has to be added that Morocco and Mauritania both emphasized
that, in their-view, the overlapping left "no geographical void"-no
"no-man's land" - between their respectiveties with Western Sahara.

158. The Court, as has already been indicated, concurs in the view that
Question II does not envisage any form of territorial delimitation by the WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 67

Court. It isalsoevident that theconclusionsreached by the Court concerning
the ties which existed between Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco
or the Mauritanian entity, as defined above, at the time of colonization lead

also to the conclusion that there was a certain overlapping of those ties. The
findings of the Court, however, regarding the nature of the legal ties of the
territory respectively with the Kingdom of Morocco and the Mauritanian
entity differ materially from the viewsadvanced in that respect by Morocco
and Mauritania. In the opinion of the Court those ties did not involve

territorial sovereignty or CO-sovereigntyor territorial inclusion in a legal
entity. In consequence,the"geographical overlapping" drawnattention to by
the two States had, in the Court's view, a different character from that
envisaged in the statements quoted above.

159. The overlapping arose simply from the geographical locations of the

migration routes of the nomadic tribes; and the intersection and overlapping
of those routes was a crucial element in the complex situation found in
Western Sahara at that time. To speak of a "north" and a "south" and an
overlapping with no void in between does not, therefore, reflect the true
complexity of that situation. This complexity was, indeed, increased by the
independence of some of the nomads, notably the Regheibat, a tribe

prominent in Western Sahara. The Regheibat, although they may have had
links with the tribes of the Bilad Shinguitti, were essentiallyan autonomous
and independent people in the region with which these proceedings are
concerned. Nor is the complexity of the legal relations of Western Sahara
with theneighbouring territories at that time fullydescribed unlessmention is

made of the fact that the nomadic routes of certain tribes passed also within
areas of what is present-day Algeria.

160. In the view of the Court, therefore, the significance of the
geographical overlapping is not that it indicates a "north" and a "south"
without a "no-man's land". Its significance is rather that it indicates the

difficulty of disentangling the various relationships existing in the Western
Sahara region at the time of colonization by Spain.

161. As already indicated in paragraph 70 of this Opinion, the General
Assembly has made it clear, in resolution 3292 (XXIX), that the right of the
population of Western Sahara to self-determination is not prejudiced or
affected by the present request for an advisory opinion, nor by any other
provision contained in that resolution. It is also clear that, when the General

Assembly asks in Question II what werethe legal tiesbetween the territory of
Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco and the Mauritanian entity, it
is addressing an enquiry to the Court as to the nature of these legal ties. This
question,as stated in paragraph 85above, must be understood as referring to WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 68

such legal tiesasmay affect the policy to be followed in thedecolonization of
Western Sahara. In framing itsanswer,the Courtcannotbe unmindful of the

purpose for which its opinion is sought. Its answer is requested in order to
assisttheGeneral Assemblyto determine itsfuture decolonization policy and
in particular to pronounceon theclaims of Morocco and Mauritania to have
had legal ties with Western Sahara involving the territorial integrity of their
respectivecountries.

162. The materials and information presented to the Court show the
existence, at the time of Spanish colonization, of legal ties of allegiance
between the Sultan of Morocco and someof thetribesliving in theterritory of
Western Sahara. They equally show the existence of rights, including some
rights relating to the land, which constituted legal ties between the

Mauritanian entity, as understood by the Court, and the territory of Western
Sahara. On the other hand, the Court's conclusion is that the materials and
information presented to it do not establish any tie of territorial sovereignty
between theterritory of Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco or the
Mauritanian entity. Thus the Court hasnot found legaltiesofsuch anature as

might affect the application of resolution 1514(XV) in the decolonization of
Western Sahara and, in particular, of the principle of self-determination
through the free and genuine expression of the will of the peoples of the
Territory (cf. paragraphs 54-59above).

163. For these reasons,

THECOURT DECIDES,

with regard to Question 1,
by 13votes to 3,

and with regard to Question II,
by 14votes to 2,

to comply with the request for an advisory opinion;

with regard to Question 1,

unanimously, WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 69

that Western Sahara (Rio de Oro and Sakiet El Hamra) at the time of
colonization by Spain wasnota territorybelonging to no-one (terranulliu;)

with regard to Question II,

by 14votesto 2,
that there werelegalties betweenthisterritory and the Kingdom of Morocco
of the kinds indicated in paragraph 162of this Opinion;

by 15votesto 1,

that there werelegal tiesbetweenthisterritory and the Mauritanian entity of
the kinds indicated in paragraph 162of this Opinion.

Done in French and English, the French text being authoritative, at the
Peace Palace,The Hague, this sixteenth day of October, one thousand nine
hundred and seventy-five,in two copies, of which one willbe placed in the
archives of the Court and the other transmitted to the Secretary-General of
the United Nations.

(Signed) Manfred LACHS,

President.

(Signed S. AQUARONE,
Registrar.

Judge GROSmakes the followingdeclaration:

[Translation]

The request for advisory opinion, as1 understand it, puts to the Court a
precisequestion,relating toa certain legalcontroversy,to whichtheAdvisory
Opinion gives a complex reply; 1 was in agreement with the Court only in
respect of one part of that reply, whichwould have preferred to separate
from the rest ofthe operative part of the Opinion. Myanalysisof thefacts of
thecaseand the rulesofinterpretation whichshouldbeappliedtothemdiffers
fromtheobservationsmade bytheCourt, and 1consideritnecessarytogivea
brief account of the reasons for my approach to the problems raised by
examination oftheGeneralAssembly'srequest,the objectofwhichappearsto
meto be morelimited than that adopted in theAdvisoryOpinion.
1. In everycase,whether contentious or advisory,the firstquestion which
arisesfor a court is:What isbeing asked for? In the present case, right from WESTERNSAHARA (DECL. GROS) 70

the beginning of the proceedings it wasapparent that the General Assembly

was asking theCourt to giveit an opinion on a precise legal question, defined
as springing from a "legal controversy [which]arose" during the discussion
"over thestatus of thesaid Territory at the time of its colonization by Spain";
in the documentation supplied by the Secretary-General concerning the
period 1958-1974there is no trace of any specific legal question between
Morocco and Spain, which however the present Advisory Opinion has

described as a "legal dispute... regarding the Territory" (Order of 22 May
1975and para. 9 of the Opinion). 1therefore voted against the Order of 22
May, which, while it was devoted to the composition of the Court, inevitably
settled the question of the legal nature of the Opinion, as had already
happened in 1971(Legal ConsequencesforStates oftheContinuedPresenceof

South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution 276 (1970),I.C.J. Reports 1971,pp. 16 K.) The problem 1
will deal with first is that of the definition of the object of the present request
for opinion, apart from the consequences of the Order on the composition of
the Court (cf. on this point para. 7 below). 1 consider that there is no
dispute - since that is the word used by the Court- between Morocco and

Spain, but a legal question raised by the Government of Morocco before the
General Assembly,with the support of the Mauritanian Government only in
1974,whichmaybe analysed as amultilateral legalcontroversy in adebateon
the future status of the territory of Western Sahara (hereinafter referred to as
the Territory). The subject of that legal question is as follows: is Morocco
entitled to claim reintegration of the Territory into the national territory of

the Kingdom of Morocco, to which itbelonged, according to Morocco, at the
time of colonization by Spain? Such is therefore the precise legal question,
and the sole question, to be answered by the Court; 1therefore regard the
reasoning of the Advisory Opinion on other subjects as unrelated to the
object of the request.

2. There is no need to dwell at length on the nature of the alleged dispute
between two Stateson such a question.The Court should examinethe titlesof
the Sherifian Empire prior to the time of coionization by Spain, even though
the date of 1884werenot a rigiddate.Proof of thesovereignty of the Sherifian
Empire isnecessarily a proof prior to the action of the Government of Spain,
and independent thereof; sincethe claim wasbased on thedetachment of part

of the territory of the Empire, it entails the need to prove prior appurtenance
to the territory of a State which wasthen recognized by the community of
States. Spain may of course have been one witness, among others, of the
situation, but it cannot be a party to a bilateral legal dispute which
"continued to subsist" (para. 36 of the Opinion) with the Kingdom of
Morocco over facts and a legal situation existing 90 years ago. For a dispute

really to exist between two States, it is necessary, as Judge Morelli, and
subsequently Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, have explained, in the Northern
Cameroons case(1.C.J.Reports 1963,p. 109),and subsequentlythecase of the
Advisory Opinion of 21June 1971(I.C.J. Reports 1971,p. 314),that: WESTERN SAHARA (DECL.GROS) 71

"... the one party [orparties]should be making, or should have made, a
complaint, claim or protest aboutan act, omission or course of conduct,

presënt or past of the other party, which the latter refutes, rejects or
denies the validity of, either expressly, or else implicitly by persisting in
the acts, omissions or conduct complained of, or by failing to take the
action or make the reparation, demanded".

It is not enough that two States may havedifferent or even opposing views
asto an event or~situationfor there tobe acontentious case,and the end of the
passagequoted makesthisclear: ifit isnot possible for any satisfaction for the
claim of the one State to be obtained from the other, there is no dispute
between them. Now what responsecould the Government of Spain make to a

claim of theGovernment of Morocco concerning the right of reintegration of
the Territory into theKingdom of Morocco, when these two Governments
have specifically agreed to effect the decolonization of the Territory by a
procedure set in motion within the United Nations, except to reply that it had
no competence to settle by itself this problem which the two Governments,
along with many others, are debating & various United Nations bodies. Even
if the Government of Spain had agreed to support the claim of the

Government of Morocco, such an attitude would havebeen without any legal
effect in the international sphere. The two Governments have explicitly
chosen decolonization in the context of the United Nations, in order to study
and ultimatelysettle thefuture of theTerritory, with the other Membersof the
United Nations. There is no bilateral dispute which is detachable from the
United Nations debate on the decolonization; there is no bilateral dispute at

all, nor has there ever been any such dispute.
3. In the Advisory Opinion the Court has not re-used the expression
"legal dispute. ..regarding the Territory" between the Governments of
Morocco and Spain, used inthe Order of 22May;paragraphs 34to 41slightly
modify the analysis, and refer to a legal controversy which arose not in
bilateral relations but during theproceedings of theGeneral Assembly,and in
relation tomatters with whichitwasdealing. Buttheground of theOrder of 22

May was an alleged bilateral dispute, since a judgead hoc was accepted for
Morocco and refused for Mauritania. Despite the stylisticdevelopment in the
Opinion, the reasoning is still that a legal controversy continued to subsist
between Morocco and Spain, and this is, itseemsto me, not maintainable for
the reasons of substance which 1 have briefly outlined. It is also not
maintainable in the light of,the history of how the alleged dispute took

concrete shape. When examAing the documents submitted, the Court has
correctly noted that between 1958and 1974the controversy had several
aspects. Between1966and 1974itsofar faded away that itwasleftasidebythe
claimant State, apart from reservations intended to prevent it being argued
that its legal contention had been abandoned. Prior to 1966,however, the
opposition ofviewsbetween Morocco and Spain nevergotbeyondthestage of
bilateral diplomatic conversations, or discussions of principle in the United WESTERNSAHARA (DECL.GROS) 72

Nations; the dossier before the Court does not contain a single trace of a
negotiation which might appearto be a preliminary to the crystallization of a

bilateral dispute. After having tried the wayof negotiation with Spain inorder
to obtain solutions the nature of which the dossier does not make clear, the
Government of Morocco stated on 7 June 1966that it would choose another
way, that of "the liberation and independence of the Moroccan people of
so-called Spanish Sahara ...in the conviction that unity could be achieved
onlythroughliberation and independence. .."(A/AC.109/SR.436, p. 8).The

allegeddispute had not crystallized up to that time, and insubsequent debates
itwasnot until the 1974sessionof theGeneral Assemblythat, according to the
Court, it "reappeared".
4. In connection with the Advisory Opinion of 21June 1971 (I.C.J.
Reports 1971,pp. 329-330),1have enquired into the elements for solution of

the problem posed by the parallel existence of a dispute between two or more
States and of a situation of which the political organ of the United Nations
was seised,and 1then took the viewthat the factthat a general situation was
being dealt with within the United Nations could not bring about the
disappearanceof the element of a dispute between States ifthere existed such
an element,and that in eachcasethe firstquestion waswhether one isor isnot

confronted with what is really a dispute. 1do not see that in the present case
there is any dispute between Morocco and Spain; there cannot be a dispute
over a legal issue which neither of the States can resolve by themselves.The
disagreement in al1 the United Nations debates concerns a problem any
solution of which is meaningless unless it isvalid erga omnes; in the present
case there is no bilateral dispute which can be detached from the general
discussion of the claim of the Government of Morocco to re-integration of

the Territory, but what isdetachable from the general discussion isa point of
law of general interest on which the General Assembly considers itself
insufficiently informed, and which it asks the Court to settle in order to be
able to continue its examination of the decolonization of the Territory. This
point may of course be of more particular interest to certain member States,
and that isthe reason whythey are mentioned in resolution 3292(XXIX), but

these States are not making specificclaims against each other, and there isno
dispute.
5.Apart from the important legal interest of principle involved in the
discussion of the point, the principal consequence of the difference between
the alleged bilateral dispute and a legal question falling within the advisory
competence of the Court has been an erroneous decison taken as to the

composition of the Court, and further the fact that the presentation of the
Advisory Opinion is a precise transposition of what is customary in
contentious proceedings. 1find it regrettable that the Court should in the
Opinion haveconfirmed the viewprovisionally taken in the Order of 22 May,
and-associating myself with the reservations of other Members of the
Court- 1maintain that that analysis did not take account of the necessary

conditions for the existence of real disputes to be recognized. This isal1the
more so in that, by conceding in the advisory opinion that the subject of its WESTERNSAHARA(DECL.GROS) 73

examination depended on the interpretation of the decolonization action of
the Territory, the Court in effectabandoned the viewthat there wasabilateral

opposition between Morocco and Spain as to the re-integration of the
Territory into theKingdom of Morocco.
6. The question whether, within the decolonization process of Western
Sahara commenced by the United Nations, one or two States can invoke a
right to re-integration of theTerritory soas toome under their sovereignty is
a legal question within the meaning of Article 65 of the Statute of the Court,

and it is proper to give a reply thereto. But the definition of legal questions
within the meaning of Article 65, as formulated in a general way in
paragraphs 18 and 19 of the Advisory Opinion, seems to me dangerously
inaccurate. 1 shall merely recall that when the Court gives an advisory
opinion on a question of law it Statesthe law. The absence of binding force

does not transform the judicial operation into a legal consultation, which
may be made use of or not according to choice. The advisory opinion
determines the law applicable to the question put; it is possible for the body
which sought the opinion not to follow it in its action, but that body is aware
that no position adopted contrary to the Court's pronouncement will have
any effectiveness whatsoever in the legal sphere. In the present case, as

defined in the Advisory Opinion, this point is no longer in doubt; since the
question put has been found to be a legal one, and since a reply could be
regarded as capable of influencing the United Nations action of
decolonization of the Territory, the Court could exercise its function as a
judicial organ on such a question in the normal way, unlike the case

contemplated in 1963 when it stated that: "it is not the function of a Court
merely to provide a basis for political action if no question of actual legal
rights is involved" (I.C.J. Reports 1963,p. 37, emphasis added). The Court's
reply concerns a claim of right to re-integration of theTerritory at thepresent
time, and the fact that the first test of that right was that of the titles prior to
colonization does not make such a question abstract or academic. That isnot

so with regard to the other part of the reply which the Court has given in
paragraph 162of theOpinion, as weshall seein paragraphs 1Oand 12of these
observations; it is the application of this theory, which gives an extensive
meaning to Article 65 of the Statute, to the operative part of the Opinion
which shows how improper it is.
7. To conclude on this aspect of the problems of competence which have

arisen for the Court,1shall merely observe that once again the commitments
entered into in an Order on a preliminary question have tied the Court's
hands. The recitals in the Order of 22 May 1975 were based on the
"appearance" of a dispute between Morocco and Spain and of a requeston a
legal question pending between two or more States within the meaning of

Article 89 of the Rules; the verb "appear" is used four times. The Court
however then went on to Saythat its conclusions did not prejudge its position
on any of thequestionssubsequently to be decided,competence,propriety of
replying to the request, merits. Despite the effective disappearance of the
bilateral dispute in the Court's train of reasoning in its Opinion, and the veil WESTERN SAHARA (DECL. GROS) 74

drawn over the existence of a legal question pending between States, the
Court has been unable or unwilling to modify what it said in May 1975,

although thereason for the appointment of ajudge ad hocdoes not stand. The
third recital in the Order states that the Court "includes upon the Bench a
judge of the nationality of Spain, the administering Power of Western
aha ara" ;havepointed out in paragraphs 2and 4 above that Spain was not,
on the basis of that or any other status, a party to a bilateral dispute, orto the
settlement of a legal question pending between two or more States. By
deciding that the question put to the Court was linked to the pursuit of the

General Assembly'sdecolonization process, the Court impliedlyadmits that
the justification for its cornpetence is no longer the dispute which there
"appeared" to be in May 1975. Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice and 1
commented in 1971 on the regrettable effects of these Orders on the
composition of the Court which irrevocably prejudge the merits (I.C.J.
Reports 1971,p. 316,pp. 325-326and 330). 1should add, in the present case,

thattheCourt allowed one of its Members to sitalthough hehad in theUnited
Nations committed himself on one element in the discussion(on thispoint cf.
I.C.J.Reports 1971,the dissenting opinion of Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, p. 309,
and my own observations on pp. 311 ff.).

8. My observations on the problerns raised by the Government of
Mauritania essentiallydo not differfrom those of the Court; 1would however
observe that the legal position of the Government of Mauritania in the
proceedings before the Court was peculiar, inasmuch as prior to 1974it did

not seek to set up its claim for reintegration of the Territory into its national
territory against the normal pursuit of the procedure for self-determination
of the population of the Territory in the United Nations context.

9. The above considerations asto theproper interpretation of Article 65of
the Statute and the precise object of the request for advisory opinion enable
meto be brief in explaining my negativevoteasto the propriety of replying to
the first question in the request. Since the Court decided to reply to this
question in the very terms in which ithas been put, 1took the view that the

question wasnot a legalone, that it waspurelyacademic and served no useful
purpose, and 1share the views ofJudge Dillard asto itsbeing a "loaded" one.
The Advisory Opinion rightly recognizes that the concept of terranulliuswas
never relied on by any of the States interested in the status of the Territory at
the time of colonization; no treaty or diplomatic document has been
produced relying on this concept in connection with Western Sahara, and
States at the time spoke only of zones of influence. With regard to a territory WESTERNSAHARA (DECL.GROS) 75

in respect of whichtheconceptmakesno appearance in thepractice of States,

it is a sterile exercise to ask the Court to pronounce on a hypothetical
situation; itis not for a court to enquire into what would have happened in
1884if Stateshad relied on thisconcept,but into what did happen. If the real
questionput by the General Assembly,in the thinking of those whodrafted it,
was what was the legal status of the Territory under international law at the

time, it duplicated the second question, to which the Court has, almost
unanimously,agreed to reply.
Having said that, since the Court has decided to give a reply to the first
question, and since our rules do not permit an abstention, 1have voted with
al1my colleagues that the Territory was not nulliusbefore colonization; for 1
consider that the independent tribes travellingoverthe territory, or stopping

in certain places, exercised a de facto authority which was sufficiently
recognized for there to have been no terra nullius.

10. The Court has not adopted the simplest way of giving its reply to the
second question, since the reply itself, inasmuch as it is effected by
cross-reference to paragraph 162 of the reasoning, is enigmatic, as is the
paragraph referred to, in which a positive finding of what aresaid to be legal
ties of allegiance between certain nomadic tribes of the territory and the

Emperor of Morocco at thetime of colonization, and alsoother ties whichare
said tobe legal,thistime between the Mauritanian entity and the Territory, is
combined with a negative decision asto the existenceof anytie of sovereignty
overthe territory on the part of the Emperor of Morocco or the Mauritanian
entity,the conclusion being that no legal tie exists which could influence the
principle of self-determinationthrough thefree and genuine expression ofthe

will of the peoples of the Territory (with a fresh cross-reference here to
paras. 54-59of the opinion).
The second part of paragraph 162,concerning the question of territorial
sovereignty, is the only one which corresponds to the question put in the
request for opinion. The object of the request, as 1 said in my very first
paragraph above, was to obtain the opinion of the Court on a claim of the

Government of Morocco to the reintegration of the Territory in the national
territory of Morocco, and on a parallel claim by the Government of
Mauritania based on the concept of the Mauritanian entity at the time in
question, which advisory opinion was necessary prior to pursuit of the
decolonization of the territory. 1agree with the views and decision of the

Court on this point of law.
On the other hand, if paragraph 162 had been divided into two, 1would
have voted against the firstpart which relates to the "legal ties"otheran the
tie of territorial sovereignty,ecause those ties are not legal ties but ethnic,
religious or cultural ties, ties ofcontact of a civilization with what lies on its
periphery and outside it, and which do not touch on its own nature. 1must WESTERNSAHARA (DECL. GROS) 76

therefore make a fewobservations on thepart of the Court's replywith which
1disagree, both as regards the reasoning and the conclusion (for Morocco,
paras. 105, 106, 107, 129; for Mauritania, paras. 151 and 152; for the
conclusion, para. 162).

11. The description given in the Opinion of the Saharan desert and of
nomadic life in 1884 is an idyllic vision of what was a harsh reality. At the
time, the Saharan desert was still the frontierless sea of sand used by the
caravans asconvoys usean ocean, for the ,wrposes of a well-known trade; the
desert was a way ofaccess to markets on it: periphery. The relation between
the territory and human beings was affected by these aspects, and the
organization of the populations of thedesert reflectsthese special conditions

of life:caravans, thequest for pastures, oases,defence or conquest,protection
and submission between tribes - with regard to which testimonyproduced to
the Court, and not disputed, was to the effectthat in modern times there are
173 Moorish tribes. Since the Court was unable to cary out any specific
research,it isvain to makegeneralizations, in theabsence of any reliable data,
on the linesthat there was "allegiance" between the Emperor of Morocco and
"some" of the nomadic tribes, or "some rights relating to the land", between

the Territory and the Mauritanian entity, when the Court would be quite
unable to say either what were the tribes concerned in 1884,to what extent
and for what period, nor in what effectiveexercise of rights relating to the
land the tribes and the Mauritanian entity were combined, nor what tribes,
nor for what period. It is the duty of acourt to establishfacts, that isto sayto
make findings as to their existence, and it confers a legal meaning upon them
by its decision; a court may neither suppose the existence of factsnoreduce

them from hypotheses unsupported by evidence. How can one speak of a
legal tie of allegiance, a concept of feudal law in an extremely hierarchical
Society,in which allegiance was an obligation which was assumed formally
and publicly, which was known to all, was relied on on both sides, and was
backed by specific procedures and not merely by the force of arms. The
political situation, in the broadest senseof the term, of the tribes of the desert
is that of independence asserted by arms, independence both between the

tribes themselves and with regard to what lay on the periphery of their
travelling grounds. To give the term allegiance its traditional sense, more
wouldhave to be said than that itwas possible that the Sultan displayedsome
authority over some unidentified tribes of the desert (para. 105 of the
Opinion). As to the observations and deductions made as to the role of the
various Tekna tribes, also unidentified, these seem to me injudicious, mere a
posterioriconstructions of a littleknown epoch. On the basis of thedossier as

it stands, and of the studies of this period by geographers, historians,
explorers and soldiers, the Saharan desert and its tribes did not recognize
allegiance in the legal sense of the word, and sporadic contacts or
relationships with the outside world did not affect the peculiarity and
exclusivity-of their way of life. If the desert is a separateworld, it is an
autonomous world in the conception of its relationships with those who have
a different way of life. WESTERN SAHARA (DECL. GROS) 77

12. Contact-relationships of which the duration is unknown, and the
existence of which at the period of colonization is supposed rather than
proved, do not afford possible material for the Court to examine and on
which to reply,and by doing so it overstepsthe limits of the powers conferred
upon it by Article 65 of its Statute (cf. para.6 above). By means of the
extensive interpretation given to Article65,whereby the Court wasled to put

to itselfa secondquestion, that of the legaltiesotherhan sovereigntyoverthe
Territory at the period under consideration, which was the solesubject of the
controversy which gave rise to the request for opinion,theCourt purports to
be replying to a legal question, but the ties which it describes as legal would
only be so if, after having established their existence, the Court could in
any way, by determining their significance, produce an effect on the
decolonization of the Territory. The Court cannot attribute a legal nature to

facts which do not intrinsically possess it; a court does not create the law, it
establishes it. If there is nole of law making it possible for it to assert the
existence of the alleged legal ties, the Court oversteps its role as a judicial
organ by describing them as legal, and its finding is not a legal finding;the
Court's statement in paragraph 73 of the Opinion that questions put in a
request for opinion must have "a practical and contemporary effect" if they

are not to be "devoid of object or purpose", does not suffice,for the Court
does not in this fieldhave capacity to "give advice" to the General Assembly
which would have a practical effect. Whether such factors existed in 1884 or
not - which has not been "established" in thejudicial sense of the word - the
General Assembly would be free to take them into account together with
other contemporary factors, which also do not fa11within the Court's
competence, because economics, sociology and human geography are not

law. In 1962 the Court said: "in accordance with Article 65 of its Statute, the
Court can give an advisory opinion only on a legal question. If a question is
not a legalone,the Court has no discretion in the matter" (AdvisoryOpinion
of 20 July 1962, Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17,para-
graph2,ofthe Charter),I.C.J.Reports 1962,p. 155).
13. 1expressed myviewin 1974 astothecurrent trend in theCourt to reply
to problems which it raises itself rather than to that which is submitted to it,

and can only endorse what 1said then (I.C.J. Reports 1974.pp. 148-149). In
the present case, the way in which the operative part of the Advisory Opinion
has been drawn has obliged me to vote in a way as unsatisfactory as that
drafting itself, as isshown by the various opinions in relation to the apparent
quasi-unanimity. Likeother Members of the Court, 1was faced only with the
choice between agreeing or disagreeingsubject in eithereventto reservations.
1 voted in favour of the adoption of the operative clause, and thus of

paragraph 162, because of the part thereof concerning the object of the
request, as 1havedefined it above, that isto sayverification of theexistence of
legaltiesofappurtenance or dependence of thepopulation of theTerritory, at
the period under consideration, vis-à-vis an external political authority -in
short, tiesrelating to thesovereignty which wasclaimedbefore theCourt; and
the role of the Court went no further than that. WESTERNSAHARA(DECL.IGNACIO-PINTO) 78

Judge IGNACIO-PINTO makes the followingdeclaration:

[Translation]

1 have been able to subscribe only in part to the Opinion of the
InternationalCourt of Justice dated 16 October 1975 and only because in the
final paragraph of its reasoning, paragraph162, the Court's

"... conclusion is that the materials and information presented to it do
not establish any tie of territorial sovereignty between the territory of
Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco or the Mauritanian
entity. Thus the Court has not found legal ties of such a nature as might
affect the application of resolution514(XV) in the decolonization of
Western Sahara and, in particular, of the principle of self-determination

through thefree and genuineexpression of the will ofthe peoples of the
Territory."

1consequently reject al1that part of the Court's statement which declares
that at the time of colonization by Spain there were legal ties of allegiance
between the Sultan of Morocco and certain tribes of theterritom at the same
time as other legal ties between the Mauritanian entity and the territory of
Western Sahara.
Myobjection to the Advisory Opinion isdue to the factthat 1consider that,

evenifitappearsthat the Court isjustified indeclaring itselfcompetent under
the provisions of Article96 of the Charter of the United Nations on the one
hand, and of Article65 of the Statute of the Court on the other, to receive
from the United Nations General Assembly the request for an advisory
opinion, it would have been proper by reason of certain circumstances in the
case ab initiofor theCourt, availing itself of itsdiscretionary power, and after

having declared the request receivable as to the form, to reject it as to the
substance, because the questions as put are, as it were, loaded questions,
leading in any case to the answer awaited in this particular instance, namely
the recognition of rights of sovereignty of Morocco on the onehand and of
Mauritania on the other over some part or other of Western Sahara.
For the sake of brevity and to avoid useless repetition, 1can support the
observations of Judge Petrén concerning theinterpretation of paragraph162

of the Opinion and the groundson which mycolleague,like myself,rejectsal1
of that paragraph other than where it deals with the question of any tie
of territorial sovereigntybetween the territory and Morocco and the Mauri-
tanian entity- a part of the paragraph which 1can accept.

M.NACENDR SAINGH, ju\e, fait la déclaration suivante:
[Traduction]

Bien que je souscrive à l'avis consultatif et que j'approuve son insistance
sur la nécessitd'une expression authentique de la volontédes populations, SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(DÉCL.NAGENDRA SINGH) 79
fondement de l'autodétermination,iln'estpeut-êtrepas inutilede chercherà

mieux cerner la nature et le caractère des liens juridiques qui constituent
l'objet de la question II de la résolution 3292 (XXIX) de l'Assemblée
généralep , ar laquelle la Cour a été saisiede la présente requpour avis
consultatif. Sans paraître sortir de son rôle judiciaire, un tribunal peut
préciserl'effetdeceslienssurladécolonisation,quidemeurelebutet lethème
essentieldestravaux en cours àl'Assemblée généraleC. 'estlà un aspect vital
qui doit être énoncéen détailet sans équivoqueafin d'éclairerl'Assemblée
générale.
En outre, d'autres aspects, peut-être tout aussi importants, méritentde
retenir l'attention et doivent êtresoulignéscomme il convient pour que la
portéedel'avisconsultatif soitpleinementappréciée.Cesaspectsessentiels à
mesyeuxsont brièvementindiquésci-dessous.

Le Maroc et la Mauritanie ont évoqué l'un etl'autre certains aspects et
détailspertinentsdu processusde décolonisationqu'ilimporte de releverici.
Danssonexposéoral, l'undesconseilsdu Maroc s'estexpriméencestermes:

«D'ailleurs, mêmedans l'hypothèseoù l'Assembléegénéraledéci-
derait que, pour la miseen Œuvredu principe de la libre détermination,
ilconvientderecourir àun référendumd ,ans cecas-làaussibien,ilserait
utile de savoir si,compte tenu de l'existencede liensjuridiques avec un
pays au moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne de ce territoire, il ne
conviendrait pas de poseraux populations le problèmedeleurrattache-

ment, de leur retour, ou au contraire de leur détachement,e qui, par
hypothèse, serait leur ancienne mère patrie.» (Audience du 26juin
1975.)
«ce problèmede l'aménagement desquestions dans un éventuelréfé-
rendumest donc éclairéd ,ans unecertaine mesure,par la nécessitpour

l'Assembléegénérale d'êtreaucourantde toutes lesdonnéesde l'aflaire»
(ibid.(lesitaliquessont de moi).
La Cour, étantparvenue à bon droità la conclusion qu'il n'existait pas de
liensjuridiques«denature à modifierl'applicationde la résolution151..et
en particulier l'application du principe d'autodéterminaton grâce'expres-

sion libre et authentique de la volontédespopulations du territoire»,paraît
être fondée à aller plus loin pour indiquer dans quelle mesure les liens
juridiques qui existaient en fait pourraient avoir une incidence sur le
processus de décolonisationet, dans cecas,sousquelleformeconcrète.
Cesliensjuridiques entre leSahara occidental etleMarocou la Mauritanie
dont la Cour a constatél'existenceau moment de la colonisation espagnole
n'étaientpas tels qu'ils puissent justifieraujourd'hui la réintégrationou la
rétrocession du territoire sans consultation de ses habitants. La raison
essentielledecetteconclusion estsimplementlasuivante: rien n'indiquequ'àl'époquede lacolonisation espagnole un seul Etat,englobant lesterritoires du
Sahara occidental et du Maroc, ou le Sahara occidental et la Mauritanie, ait
été démembré par le colonisateur, fait qui justifierait sa reconstitution au

stade actuel de la décolonisation. Par suite, les circonstances de l'espèce
sortent du cadre du paragraphe 6 de la résolution1514 (XV), selon lequel la
destruction de l'uniténationale et de l'intégritéterritoriale d'un pays est
incompatible avec la Charte des Nations Unies, ce qui militerait donc en
faveur d'une réintégration. Néanmoins, puisqulea Cour constate l'existence
de certains liensjuridiques, il devient nécessaired'examiner ces liens à seule

fin d'apprécier l'importance qu'ils peuvent revêtirdans le processus de
décolonisation et de rechercher s'ils appellent l'adoption d'une mesure
précise.En un mot, la force et l'effectivitéde ces liens, bien que limitées,
doivent êtreconsidéréescomme pouvant donnerune indication de9options
qui pourraient êtreoffertes à la population afin qu'elle exprime sa volonté.
Conformément aux résolutions 1541 (XV) et 2625 (XXV), ces options

pourraient êtresoit l'intégration au Maroc ou à la Mauritanie, soit la libre
association avec l'un de ces deux Etats, soit encore le choix d'un statut
souverain et indépendant pour le territoire. Mêmesi l'on admet que les
méthodesde décolonisationsont du ressort exclusif de l'Assemblée générale,
il appartient cependant à un tribunal de souligner les rapports entre l'exis-
tence de liens juridiques .et le processus de décolonisation,afin d'éclairer

pleinement l'Assemblée.Agir ainsi, ce n'estpas empiétersur lesprérogatives
de l'Assemblée,mais remplir le rôle qui incombe à la Cour comme organe
judiciaire principal des Nations Unies.
Il existe d'excellentes raisons d'aller jusque-là mais pas plus loin. Tout
d'abord, si l'on tient compte de la raison d'être mêmdee la résolution3292
(XXIX), il est clair que ce que l'Assembléegénéraleattend, en réponseà la
question II,c'estune évaluationpar la Cour de la nature des liensjuridiques

«qui pourraient influer sur la politique à suivre pour la décolonisation du
Sahara occidental ».S'il estvrai que «la Courne saurait oublier l'objeten vue
duquel l'avis est sollicit», il va sans dire que sans sortir de son rôle de
tribunal elle peut aller jusqu'à éclairerces aspects des options ouvertes à la
population du territoire, quel que soit le mode de consultation, à fortiori
quand la Cour juge cette consultation essentielle.

La seconde raison est que le Maroc et la Mauritanie ont l'un et l'autre
plaidé cet aspect de la question, comme on l'a vu, et qu'il ne faudrait pas
totalement le méconnaître.

La Cour a reconnu la validitédu principe de l'autodétermination,« défini
comme répondant à la nécessitéde tenir compte de la volonté librement
expriméedes peuples ».Elle a en outre conclu àjuste titre que la demande
d'avis ne diminue en rien la nécessitéde déterminer la voIontélibrement
expriméede la population. A mon sens, la consultation des habitants duterritoire en instance de décolonisation est un impératif absolu, que la
méthodesuivie pour la décolonisation soit I'intégration,l'association ou

l'indépendance.C'estcequi ressortnon seulementdesdispositionsgénérales
de la Charte des Nations Unies mais aussi de résolutions particulièresde
l'Assemblée généraleconsacrées à cesujet.Outrelesarticles1,2,55 et56dela
Charte et les paragraphes 2 et 5 de la résolution1514(XV),qui insistent de
manièregénéralesur cet aspect,on trouvedesdispositionsexpressescomme
lesprincipes VI1et IX de la résolution1541(XV),quiénoncent catégorique-
mentquela libreassociation ouI'intégration«doitrésulterdudésirlibrement
exprimédespopulations duterritoire ».C'estleprincipe VIc)dela résolution
1541(XV)quireconnaît quel'intégration peut êtreuneméthod deedécoloni-
sation et le principe IX b)oblige à consulter la population pour réaliser
l'autodéterminationpar cettevoie.Demême larésolution2625(XXV)surles
relations amicales revient sur la question pour souligner que lors de la
décolonisation l'aboutissement à un statut politique quelconque doit être
((librement décidépar un peuple ».Ainsi, alors mêmeque l'un des Etats
intéressésrevendique l'intégrationd'un territoire, comme dans la présente

affaire, on ne saurait procédersans s'êtreassuréde la volonté librement
expriméedeshabitants - cequiconstituelesinequa nondetoutedécolonisa-
tion.
Je suis néanmoins d'accord avecles éclaircissementsdonnéspar la Cour
sur certains cas où l'Assembléegénéralen'a pas cru devoir consulter les
habitants d'unterritoire.lenrésulteselonmoiqueleprincipe del'autodéter-
mination n'estécarté que dans la mesure où l'onconsidèrecommeallant de
soilalibreexpression dela volontédela population, encesensque i'onsaitle
résultat acquis d'avance ouque des consultations ont déjàeu lieu sous une
formequelconqueouencorequecertainesparticularitésrendentcetteconsul-
tation superflue. Descirconstances aussiexceptionnellessont possibles;elles
peuvent serencontrer, mais ellesne sont pas présentesdans l'affaireactuelle
au point que l'onpuisseécarterleprincipesalutaire dela déterminationdela
volontélibrementexprimée delapopulation duterritoirequi, consultée,peut,

siellelesouhaite,choisir de s'intégrern'importe lequeldes Etats intéressés
avoisinants.
Je répèteque les cas relevant du paragraphe 6 de la résolution 1514
échappent àcette règle.Detoute façon, commeon l'avu, lesfaits dela cause
ne paraissent pas appeler l'application de cettedisposition particulière.

III

Un autre aspect qui me paraît égalementimportant concerne les obser-
vations formuléespar la Cour au sujet du principe fondamental du consen-
tement à lajuridiction dans lecas où l'onutiliserait la voieconsultativepour
éluderlanécessitédececonsentement.Danslaprésenteaffaire,l'Espagnen'a
pas consentià ceque lesquestionsénoncées dans la résolution3292(XXIX)
soientportéesdevantlaCour. Ellen'avait pasaccepténonpluslaproposition
marocaine de saisir la Cour au contentieux.11incombait donc àla Cour depréciser lasituation en droit, l'Espagne soutenant qu'ylavait absence de
consentement à la juridiction de la Cour. S'il est vrai qu'il y a deux voies
d'accès distinctesla Cour, la voieconsultative et la voiecontentieuse, et que
le consentement des Etats parties à un différend est le fondement de la

juridiction enmatière contentieuse alors qu'il en est autrement en matière
d'avis,puisque l'avisde la Cour n'a qu'unaractèreconsultatif »et qu'il est
donné «non awrEtats, mais àl'organe habilitépour lelui demander »(C.I.J.
Recueil1950,p. 74Qilestjustifiéde conclure quedans certainescirconstances
le défaut de conse&m@ d'un Etat-intéressépourrait rendre le prononcé
d'un avisconsultatif incompatible avec lecaractèrejudiciaire de la Cour. La
Coura donc déclaré qu&une demande d'avis consultatif était faitedans des

circonstances indiquant clairement quel'intention ou lebut étaitdetourner le
principe du consentement, il en résulterait une situation dans laquelle le
« pouvoir discrétionnaire que la ~ou$?ient de l'arti65, paragraphe 1, du
Statut fournirait des moyens juridiques suffisants pour assurer le respect du
principe fondamental du consentement à lajuridiction ».

Ce principe salutaire n'a pas été élén l'espèceattendu que la demande

d'avis visait obtenir de la Cour des conseils juridiques que l'Assemblée
généraleestimaitutiles pour exercer sesfonctions en vue de la décolonisation
prochaine d'un territoire. L'important dans ce contexte est donc d'avoir
reconnu que des considérationsd'opportunitéjudiciaire constitueraient une
raison« décisive» de refuser d'émettreun avis, si lebut de la requêteétaitde
tourner le principe suivant lequel un Etat n'est pas tenu de soumettre ses

différends au règlement judiciaire contre sa volonté. La Cour renseigne
d'autre part l'Assembléegénéralsur l'application de l'art96lde la Charte
en déclarant que le consentement d'un Etat reste pertinent, en matière
consultative,«pour appréciers'ilest opportun de rendre un avis ».

Vice-President AMMOUN,Judges FORSTERP , ETRÉN,DILLARD and DE
CASTRO and Judge ad lzocBONI append separate opinions to the Opinion
of the Court.

Judge RUDA appends a dissenting opinion to the Opinion of the Court.

(Initialled) ML.

(Initialled)S.A.

Bilingual Content

COUR INTERNATIONALDE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

SAHARA OCCIDENTAL

AVIS CONSULTATIFDU 16 OCTOBRE 1975

INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,

ADVlSORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

WESTERN SAHARA

ADVlSORY OPINION OF 16 OCTOBER 1975 Mode officielde citation:
Sahara occidental,
avis consultatiJ;C.1.J.Rp12.il1975,

Officialcitation:
WesternSahara,
Advisoty Opinion,1.C.J.Reports 1975,p. 12.

No devente:
Salenumber 414 1 COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

1975
16octobre
Rôle général 16octobre1975
no 61

SAHARAOCCIDENTAL

Compétence de la Cour pour émettre I'avis consiiltatif demandé - Oppor-
tunité de donner I'avis - Pertinence du défaut de consentement d'un Etat
intéressé- L'avis consultatif a été demandéen vue de guider l'Assemblée
générale dans sonaction future - Allégation concernant I'existetice d'lrn
différend territoria- Question de la détermination desfaits - L'objet des

questions, eu égardà la résol~<tio3n292 (XXIX) de l'Assembléegénéraleet arrx
principes de base régissantla décolonisati-n Corztexte temporel des questions.
Notion de terranullius dans la question - II s'agit d'un territoire habitépar
des tribus- Portée delapratique des Etats pendant lapériodeen qrrestion- Le
Sahara occidental n'a pas ététrait&comme une terra nullius lors de la coloni-
sation.
Sens de l'expression «liensuridiques» dans la question I- Car.actéristiques
du Sahara occidental - Souveraineté revendiquéepar le Maroc sur la base de

la possession immémoriale - Pertinence de la structure spéciale de I'Etat
chérifien- Preuves qui indiqueraient des manifestations de la souveraineté
marocaine sur le plan interne et la reconnaissance internationale de cette
souveraineté - Portée de la clause concernant les naufragéssur les côtes de
l'oued Noun - Accord anglo-marocain du 13 mars 1895 - Lettres échangées
par la France et l'Allemagne le 4 novembre 1911.
L'ensemble mauritanien - Particirlaritc'sdu Bilad Chingui-i Ses liens avec

l'ensemble mauritanien - Critère servanta détern~inersi en droit il s'agit d'une
entitéde caractèrejuridique- Sens de l'expression «liens jrrridiqrreàpropos
de l'ensemble mauritanien - Enchevêtrement desliensjuridiqires allégués.
Importance à attribuerà l'objet en vue duquel I'avis cons~rltatifest sollicité
- La nature des liens jrrridiques, leur rapport avec la décolonisation du Sahara
occidental et le principe de l'autodétermination.

AVIS CONSULTATIF

Présents: M. LACHSP,résident; M. AMMOUN V,ice-Président; MM. FORSTER,
GROS,BENGZON, PETRÉNO , NYEAMA D,ILLARDI ,GNACIO-PINTO,
DE CASTROM , OROZOV J,IMENEZ DE ARÉCHAGA si,r Humphrey

WALDOCK M , M. NAGENDR SANGH, RUDA,juges; M. BONIj,uge
ad hoc; M. AQUARONG Er,efier. INTERNATIONAL COURT OFJUSTICE

YEAR 1975
1975
16 October
16 October 1975 GeneralList
No. 61

WESTERN SAHARA

Competence of the Corrrt tu give opinion reqirested-Propof givirlg the
opinion-Relevance oylack of consent of a State corlcerried-Opinion reqiiested
to giride Gerieral Assembly in respect of its own firtrrre actionterri-ed
torial dispirte-Questioof ascertairinient of facts-Determinatof object
of qiiestions in light of General Assembly resolrrtion 3292 (XXIX) and basic
principles governirig decolor~ization-Temporal coritest of questions.

Concept of terra nullius in Qi!estion 1-Territorpeopled by tribes-
Sigriificance of State practice ai the period concerned- Western Sahara not
treated as terranulliusin the prcc,colonization.

Mearlirigof "legal ties" irlQirestiorrII-Characterof WesterriSahara-
Morocco's claim to sovereigilty or1bnsis of ir?rmemorialpossessiori-Relevance
of special strrtctrire of Sherifian State-Evidesaid to ir~dicate interilal
display and irlternational recognitio~lof A4oroccar1sovereigrity-Sigofficance
the "Wad Noim shipwreck clairse"-Arlglo-Moroccan Agreement of 13 March
1895-Frar~co-Germari exchnrlge of letters of 4 November 1911.

The "Mairritaniarl entityW-Fearirres of the Bilad Shingi~itrelation to
the Mairritarlian entity-Crireriorl for determirling ivhetller ivhat corifror~tsthe
law is legally an entity-Mear~iriof "legal ties" rrsed in cor~jrrriz ithw
"Marrritanian entityV-Overlappir~g character of claims tu legal ties.
.Significance of purpose for 11,hichopirrion is soiight-Naof legal ties
utrd tkeir relation to the docolorrizationof Western Sahara atid the prirlciple of
self-determination.

ADVISORY OPINION

Present: President LACHS;Vice-Presider~tAMMOUN J;irdges FORSTERG,ROS,
BENGZON, PETREN O,NYEAMD A,ILLARD I, NACIO-PINT DE,CASTRO,
Mo~ozov, JIMENEZ DE ARÉCHAGA S,ir Hurnphrey WALDOCK,
NAGENDR SAINGH,RUDA; Jlrdge ad hoc BONI;Registrar AQUARONE.13 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

Au sujet de certaines questions ayant trait au Sahara occidental (Rio de
Oro et Sakiet El Hamra),

ainsi composée,
donne ,l'avis consultatif suivant:

1. La Cour a étésaisie des questions sur lesquelles un avis consultatif lui
est demandépar une lettre du Secrétaire généralde l'organisation des Nations
Unies au Président de la Cour datée du 17 décembre 1974 et enregistrée au
Greffe le 21 décembre 1974. Dans cette lettre, le Secrétaire généralporte à
la connaissance de la Cour que, par la résolution 3292 (XXIX) adoptée
le 13 décembre 1974, l'Assemblée générale des Nations Unies a décidé de
demander à la Cour de donner, à une date rapprochée, un avis consultatif sur
les questions énoncéesdans la résolution. Le teste de cette résolution est
ainsi conçu:

«L'Assemblée générale,

Rappelant sa résolution 1514 (XV) du 14 décembre 1960, contenant la
Déclaration sur l'octroi de l'indépendance aux pays et aux peuples
coloniaux,
Rappelant également ses résolutions 2072 (XX) du 16 décembre 1965,
2229 (XXI) du 20 décembre 1966, 2354 (XXII) du 19 décembre 1967,
2428 (XXIII) du 18 décembre 1968, 2591 (XXIV) du 16décembre 1969,
2711 (XXV) du 14 décembre 1970, 2983 (XXVII) du 14 décembre 1972
et 3162 (XXVIII) du 14décembre 1973,

Réaffirmant le droità l'autodétermination des populations du Sahara
espagnol, conformément àla résolution 1514 (XV),
Coilsiderant que la persistance d'une situation coloniale au Sahara
occidental compromet la stabilité et l'harmonie dans la région du nord-
ouest de l'Afrique,
Tenant compte des déclarations faites devant l'Assemblée générale, le
30 septembre et le 2 octobre 1974, par les Ministres des affaires étran-
gères du Royaume du Maroc 1 et de la République islamique de Mauri-
tanie2,
Prenant note des déclarations faites devant la Quatrième Commission

par les représentants du Maroc3 et de la Mauritanie" déclarations dans
lesquelles les deux pays se sont reconnus mutuellement intéressésau
devenir du territoire.
Ayant elltendu les 'déclarations du représentant de I'Algéries,
Ayant entendu les déclarations du représentant de I'Espagnes,

(Lesréférencecsi-aprésfigurentdans letexte adoptépar l'Assembléegénérale.)
1 A/PV.2249. WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 13

Concerning certain questions relating to Western Sahara (Rio de Oro and

Sakiet El Hamra),

THECOURT,

composed as above,

gives the follo~ving Advisory Opinion:

1. The questions upon which the advisory opinion of the Court has been
asked were laid before the Court by a letter dated 17 Deceniber 1974, filed in

the Registry on 21 Decemter 1974, addressed by the Secretary-General of
the United Nations to the President of the Court. In his letter the Secretary-
General informed the Court that, by resolution 3292 (XXIX) adopted on
13 December 1974, the General Assembly of the United Nations had decided
to request the Court to give an advisory opinion at an early date on the
questions set out in the resolution. The text of that resolution is as fol-
lows :

"The General 'Assembly,

Recalling its resolutio1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960 containing the
Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and
Peoples,
Recalling also its resolutions2072 (XX) of 16 December 1965, 2229
(XXI) of 20 December 1966, 2354 (XXII) of 19 December 1967, 2428

(XXIII) of 18 December 1968, 2591 (XXIV) of 16 December 1969, 2711
(XXV) of 14 December 1970, 2983 (XXVII) of 14 December 1972 and
3162 (XXVIII) of 14 December 1973,
Reafirrnir?g the right of the population of the Spanish Sahara to self-
determination in accordance with resolution 1514 (XV),
Considering that the persistence of a colonial situation in Western
Sahara jeopardizes stability and harmony in the north-west African
region,

Taking into accolentthe statements made in the General Assembly on
30 September and 2 October 1974 by the Ministers for Foreign Affairs
of the Kingdom of Moroccol and of the Islamic Republic of Mauri-
tania2,
Taking note of the statements made in the Fourth Committee by the
representatives of Morocco 3 and Mauritania4, in which the two countries
acknowledged that they were both interested in the future of the Territory,

Having heard the statements by the representative of Algerias,
Having heard the statements by the representative of Spain6,

(The referencesgivenbelowappear in the text adopted by the General Assembly.)
1A/PV.2249.
A/PV.2251.
3A/C.4/SR.2117,2125 and 2130.
4A/C.4/SR.2117 and 2130.
5A/ PV.2265;A/C.4/SR.2125.
6A/PV 2253:A/C.4/SR.2117,2125,2126 and 2130.14 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

Constatant qu'une controverse juridique a surgi au cours des débats
au sujet du statut dudit territoire au moment de sa colonisation par
l'Espagne,
Considérant,dès lors, qu'il est hautement souhaitable que l'Assemblée
généraleobtienne, pour poursuivre l'examen de cette question lors de

sa trentième session, un avis consultatif sur certains aspects juridiques
importants du problème,
Ayant présents à l'esprit l'Article 96 de la Charte des Nations Unies
et l'Article 65 du Statut de la Cour internationaledeJustice,
1. Décidede demander à la Cour internationale de Justice, sans préju-
dice de l'application des principes contenus dans la résolution 1514(XV)
de l'Assemblée générale, de donner, à une date rapprochée, un avis

consultatif sur les questions suivantes:
« 1.Le Sahara occidental (Rio de Oro et Sakiet El Hamra) était-il,au
moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne, un territoiresans maître
(terra nrrllius)?

Si la réponse a la première question est négative,
II. Quels étaient les liens juridiques de ce territoire avec le Royaume
du Maroc et l'ensemble mauritanien? »;

2. Demande à l'Espagne, en tant que Puissance administrante en par-
ticulier, ainsi qu'au Maroc et à la Mauritanie, en tant que parties con-
cernées, de soumettre à la Cour internationale de Justice tous renseigne-
ments ou documentspouvant servir à élucider cesquestions;
3. Invite instamment la Puissance administrante à surseoir au référen-
dum qu'elle a envisagéd'organiser au Sahara occidental tant que 1'Assem-
blée généralene se sera pas prononcée sur la politique à suivre pour
accélérerle processus de décolonisation du territoire, conformément à la
résolution 1514 (XV), dans les meilleures conditions, à la lumière de
l'avis consultatif qui sera donné par la Cour internationale de Justice;

4. Réitèreson invitation à tous les Etats àrespecter les résolutions de
l'Assembléegénéralesur les activités des intérêts étrangers, économiques
et financiers, dans le territoire àts'abstenir d'aider, par des investisse-
ments ou par une politique d'immigration, au maintien d'une situation
coloniale dans le territoire;
5.Prie le Comité spécial chargé d'étudier la situation en ce qui
concerne l'application de la Déclaration sur l'octroi de l'indépendance
aux pays et aux peuples coloniaux de suivre la situation dans le territoire,
y compris l'envoi d'une mission de visite dans le territoire, et de faire
rapport à ce sujetàl'Assembléegénéralelorsdesa trentième session. ))

2. Dans une communication parvenue au Greffe le 19 août 1975, le Secré-
taire générala indiqué que, par suite d'une erreur matérielle, le mot «contro-
verse», au neuvième alinéa du préambule de la résolution reproduite ci-
dessus, avait étéremplacé par le mot «difficulté» dans le texte initialement
transmis au Président de la Cour.

3. Par lettre du 6 janvier 1975, le Greffier a notifié la requête pour avis
consultatif à tous les Etats admis a ester devant la Cour conformément à
l'article 66, paragraphe 1, du Statut.
4. La Cour ayant décidé,conformément à l'article 66, paragraphe 2,du
Statut, que les Etats Membres des Nations Unies étaient susceptibles de WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 14

Noring that during the discussion a legal controversy arose over the
status of thesaid territory at the time of its colonization by Spain,

Considering, therefore, that it is highly desirable that the General
Assembly, in order to continue the discussion of this question at its
thirtieth session, should receive an advisory opinion on some important

legal aspects of the problem,
Bearing in miird Article 96 of the Charter of the United Nations and
Article 65 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice,
1. Decides to request the International Court of Justice, without
prejudice to the application of the principles embodied in General
Assembly resolution 1514(XV), to give an advisory opinion at an early
date on the following questions:

'1. Was Western Sahara (Rio de Oro and Sakiet El Hamra) at the
time of colonization by Spain a territory belonging to no one
(terra nrrllius)?
If the answer to the first question is in the negative,

II. What were the legal ties between this territory and the Kingdom
of Morocco and the Mauritanian entity?';
2. Calls ripoil Spain, in its capacity as administering Power in parti-
cular, as well as Morocco and Mauritania, in their capacity as interested
parties, to submit to the International Court of Justice al1 such infor-
mation and documents as may be needed to clarify those questions;
3. Urges the administering Power to postpone the referendum it
contemplated holding in Western Sahara until the General Assembly

decides on the policy to be followed in order to accelerate the decoloni-
zation process in the territory, in accordance with resolution 1514 (XV),
in the best possible conditions, in the light ofthe advisory opinion t0 be
given by the International Court of Justice;
4. Reiterates its invitation to al1 States to observe the resolutions of
the General Assembly regarding the activities of foreign econoniic and
financial interests in the Territory and to abstain from contributing
their investments or immigration policy to the maintenance of a colonial
situation in the Territory;
5. Reqrlests the Special Conlnlittee on the Situation with regard to the
lmplementation of the Declaration on the Granting of lndependence to
Colonial Countries and Peoples to keep the situation in the Territory
under review, including the sending of a visiting iiiission to the Territory,
and to report thereon to the General Asseinbly at its thirtieth session."

2. In a comiiiunication received in the Registry on 19 Augiist 1975, the
Secretary-General indicated that, owing to a technical error, the word
"controversy" in the ninth paragrapli of the preamble of the above resolution
had been replaced by the word "difficulty" in the text originally transniitted
to the President of the Co~irt.
3. By letters dated 6 Jan~iary 1975 the Registrar, pursuant to Article 66,
paragraph 1, of the Statute of the Court, gave notice of the request for
advisory opinion to al1 States entitled to appear before the Court.
4. The Court having decided, pursuant to Article 66, paragraph 2, of the

Statute, that the States Meriibers of the United Nations were likely to be able 15 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

fournir des renseignements sur les questions posées, le Président, par ordon-
nance du 3janvier 1975, a fixéau 27 mars 1975 la date d'expiration du délai
dans lequel la Cour étaitdisposéeà recevoir des exposés écritsde ces Etats. La
communication spéciale et directe prévue à l'article 66, paragraphe 2, du

Statut a étéenvoyée en conséquence à ces Etats; elle a étéincorporée à la
lettre qui leur a été adresséele 6janvier 1975.
5.Les Etats ci-après ont soumis à la Cour des exposés écritsou des lettres
en réponse à la communication du Greffe: Chili, Colombie, Costa-Rica,
Equateur, Espagne, France, Guatemala, Maroc, Mauritanie, Nicaragua,
Panama et République Dominicaine. Le texte de ces exposés ou lettres a été
transmis à tous les Etats Membres des Nations Unies ainsi qu'au Secrétaire
généralde l'organisation des Nations Unies, et a étérendu accessible au
public à partir du 22 avril 1975.
6. Outre son exposé écrit, l'Espagne a déposé une documentation en six
volumes intitulée Informations et documents que présente le Go~tvernement

espagnol àla Cour conformément audeuxième paragraphe de la résolution3292
(XXIX) de l'Assemblée généraledes Nations Unies et deux volumes de
Documents complémentaires également présentés conformément au même
paragraphe de la résolution. Le Maroc a déposéde nombreux documents à
I'appui de son exposé écritet conformément au deuxième paragraphe de la
résolution3292 (XXIX). La Mauritanie a joint des annexes àson exposé écrit.
Les trois Etats ont présenté des cartes.
7. Conformément à l'article 65, paragraphe 2, du Statut àtl'article 88 du
Règlement, le Secrétaire général de l'organisation des Nations Unies a
transmis à la Cour un dossier de documents pouvant servir à élucider les
questions, ainsi qu'une note d'introduction; ce dossier est parvenu au Greffe

sous plusieurs plis, dans les deux langues officielles de la Cour, entre le
18 février et le 15 avril1975. Le 23 avril 1975, le Greffier a transmis aux
Etats Membres des Nations Unies la note d'introduction ainsi que la liste
des documents constituant le dossier.
8. Par lettres des 25 et 26 mars 1975respectivement, le Maroc et la Mauri-
tanie ont demandé à désigner chacun un juge ad hoc pour siéger en l'affaire.
Lors d'audiences publiques tenues du 12 au 16 mai 1975, ces deux Etats,
ainsi que l'Espagne et l'Algérie, qui avaient également demandé à être
entendues, ont présenté à ce sujet des observationsà la Cour.
9. Par ordonnance du 22 mai 1975 (C.I.J. Recueil 1975, p. 6 à IO),la Cour

a conclu que, aux fins de la question préliminaire qu'était sa composition,
les éléments à elle soumis indiquaient que, au moment de I'adoption de la
résolution 3292 (XXIX):

«il paraissait y avoir un différend juridique relatif au territoire du
Sahara occidental entre le Maroc et l'Espagne; que les questions posées
dans la requête pour avis [pouvaient]être considéréescomme se ratta-
chant à ce différend et qu'en conséquence, pour l'application de I'ar-
ticle 89 du Règlement, l'avis consultatif sollicité dans cette résolution
paraissait êtredemandé « au sujet d'une question juridique actuellement
pendante entre deux ou plusieurs Etats »;

en ce qui concerne la Mauritanie, la Cour a conclu que, s'il résultait des
éléments à elle soumis que, au moment de I'adoption de la résolution, «la
Mauritanie avait invoqué des considérations diverses à l'appui de l'intérêt WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 15

to furnish information on the questions submitted, the President, by an
Order dated 3 January 1975, fixed 27 March 1975 as the time-limit within
which the Court would be prepared to receive written statements from them.
Accordingly, the special and direct communication provided for in Article 66,
paragraph 2, of the Statute was included in the letters addressed to those
States on 6 January 1975.
5. The following States submitted written staternents or letters to the
Court in response to the Registry's communications: Chile, Colombia,
Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, France, Guatemala, Mauritania,
Morocco, Nicaragua, Fanama and Spain. The texts of these statements and
letters were transmitted to the States Members of the United Nations, and to
the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and made accessible to the

public as frorn 22 April 1975.
6. In addition to its written statement, Spain submitted six volumes
entitled "Information and Documents presented by the Spanish Govern-
ment to the Court in accordance with paragraph 2 of resolution 3292 (XXIX)
of the United Nations General Assembly", and two volumes of "Further
Documents" submitted on the same basis. Morocco similarly submitted a
large number of documents "in support of its written statement and in accor-
dance with paragraph 2 of resolution 3292 (XXIX)". Mauritania likewise
appended documentary annexes to its written staternent. All three States
provided cartographical material.
7. The Secretary-General of the United Nations, pursuant to Article 65,
paragraph 2, of the Statute and Article 88 of the Rules of Court, transmitted
to the Court a dossier of documents likely to throw light upon the question,
together with an lntroductory Note; this dossier was received in the Registry
in several instalments, in the two official languages of the Court, between
18 February and 15 April 1975. On 23 April 1975 the Registrar transmitted
to the States Meinbers of the United Nations the Introductory Note aiid the
list of the documents comprised in the dossier.
8. By letters dated 25 and 26 March 1975,respectively, Morocco and Mau-
ritania each submitted a request foi the appointment of a judge ad hoc to sit

in the case. At public sittings hel? frorn 12 to 16 May 1975 the Court heard
observations on this question froni represeiitatives of those States, as also of
Spain and Algeria, which had likewise asked to be heard.
9. In an Order of 22 May 1975 (I.C.J. Rep0r.t~1975, pp. 6-10) the Court
concluded that, for the purpose of the preliiiiinary issue of its composition,
the material submitted to it indicated that at the tinie of the adoption of
resolution 3292 (XXIX):

". ..there appeared to be a legal dispute between Morocco and Spain
regarding the Territory of Western Sahara; that the questions contained
in the request for an opinion [might] be considered to be connected
with that dispute; and that, in consequence, for purposes of application
of Article 89 of the Rules of Court, the advisory opinion requested in
that resolution appear[ed] to be one 'upon a legal question actually
pending between two or more States';''

with regard to Mauritania, the Court concluded that the material subrnitted
to it, while showing that at the tiine of the adoption of the resolution "Mauri-
tania had previously adduced a series of considerations in support of its 16 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

particulier qu'elle portait au territoire du Sahara occidental », ces éléments
indiquaient, aux fins de la question préliminaire mentionnée plus haut, qu'à
l'époque « il paraissait n'y avoir aucun différendjuridique relatif au territoire
du Sahara occidental entre la Mauritanie et l'Espagne; et qu'en conséquence,

pour l'application de l'article 89 du Règlement, l'avis consultatif sol»ineté
paraissait pas «être demandé «au sujet d'une question juridique actuelle-
ment pendante)) entre ces Etats)); la Cour a déclaréque ces conclusions
«ne préjugent en rien la position de tout Etat intéreàl'égard desproblèmes
soulevés dans la présente affaire et ne préjugent pas non plus les vues de la
Cour sur les questionsàelle posées)ou sur toute autre question qu'il pourrait
y avoir lieu de trancher dans la suite de la procédure, y compris la question de
la compétence de la Cour et de l'opportunité de son exercice. La Cour a dit
en conséquence que le Maroc était fondé, en vertu des articles 31 et 68 du
Statut et de l'article 89 du Règlement,à désigner une personne pour siéger
en qualité de jugead hocmais que, s'agissant de la Mauritanie, les conditions
qui rendraient applicables ces articles n'étaient pas remplies.

10. Dans sa communication du 25 mars 1975 susmentionnée, le Maroc
avait désignéM. Alphonse Boni, président de la Cour suprêmede la Répu-
blique de Côte d'Ivoire, pour siégercomme juge ad hoc.L'Espagne, consultée
conformément à l'article 3, paragraphe 1, du Règlement, n'a pas fait con-
naître d'objection àce choix.
11. Par lettre du 29 mai 1975, le Greffier a invitéles Gouvernements des
Etats Membres des Nations Unies à indiquer s'ils avaient l'intentionde
participer à la procédure orale. Outre les quatre gouvernements qui avaient
déjàformulé des observations au cours des audiences consacrées à la question
de la désignation de jugesadhoc, le Gouvernement du Zaïre a fait savoir qu'il
se proposait de présenter son point de vue devant la Cour. Ces gouvernements

et le Secrétaire généralde l'organisationdes Nations Unies ont été informés
que la date d'ouverture de la procédure orale était fixéeau 25 juin 1975. Au
cours de vingt-sept audiences publiques, tenues entre le 25 juin et le 30juillet
1975, la Cour a entendu, en leurs exposés oraux, les représentants ci-après:

Pour le Maroc: S. Exc. M. Driss Slaoui, ambassadeur, représentant per-
manent auprès de l'organisation des Nations Unies;
M. Magid Benjelloun, procureur général à la Cour
suprême du Maroc;

M. Georges Vedel, doyen honoraire de la faculté de
droit de Paris;
M. René-Jean Dupuy, professeur à la faculté de droit
de Nice, membre de l'Institut dedroit international;
M. Mohamed Bennouna, professeur à la faculté de
droit de Rabat;
M. Paul Isoart, professeurà la faculté de droit de Nice;

pour la Mauritanie: S. Exc. M. Moulaye el Hassen, représentant permanent
auprèsdel'organisation des Nations Unies;
M. Yedali Ould Cheikh, secrétaire généraladjoint àla
présidence de la République;
S. Exc. M. Mohamed Ould Maouloud, ambassadeur;
M. Jean Salmon, professeur à la faculté de droit de
l'université libre de Bruxelles; WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 16

particular interest in the territory of Western Sahara", indicated, for the
purpose of the aforesaid preliminary issue, that at that time "there appeared
to be no legal dispute between Mauritania and Spain regarding the Territory
of Western Sahara; and that, in consequence, for purposes of application of

Article 89 of the Rules of Court, the advisory opinion requested" appeared
"not to be one 'upon a legal question actually pending' betweenthose States";
those conclusions, the Court stated, "in no way prejudgefd] the locus standi
of any interested State in regard to matters raised in the present case, nor
[did]they prejudge the views of the Court with regard to the questions referred
to it", or any other question which might fall to be decided in the further
proceedings, including those of the Court's competence and the propriety of
its exercise. The Court found accordingly that Morocco was entitled under
Articles 31 and 68 of the Statute and Article 89 of the Rules of Court to
choosea person to sit as judge ad hoc, but that, in the case of Mauritania, the
conditions for the application ofthose Articles had not been satisfied.

10. Morocco had, in its communication of 25 March 1975mentioned above
chosen Mr. Alphonse Boni, President of the Supreme Court of the Ivory
Coast, to sit as judge adhoc in the case. Spain, consulted in accordance with
Article3, paragraph 1, of the Rules of Court, did not make any objection to
this choice.

11. By a letter of 29 May 1975, the Registrar invited the Governments of
the States Members of the United Nations to inform him whether they inten-
ded to take part in the oral proceedings. In addition to the four Governments
which had already submitted observations during the hearings devoted to the
question of the appointment of judges ad hoc, the Government of Zaire
indicated that it proposed to submit its point of view to the Court. These
Governments and the Secretary-General of the United Nations were informed
that the date fixed for the opening of the oral proceedings was 25 June 1975.
In the course of 27 public sittings, held between 25 June and 30 July 1975,
oral statements were made to the Court by the following representatives:

for Morocco: H.E. Mr. Driss Slaoui, Ambassador, Permanent Represen-
tative to the United Nations;

Mr. Magid Benjelloun, Procrirertrgéiréralat the Supreme
Court of Morocco;
Mr. Georges Vedel, Doyeri horroraire of the Faculty of
Law, Paris;
Mr. René-Jean Dupuy, Professor at the Faculty of Law,
Nice; meinber of the Institute of InternationalLaw;
Mr. Mohamed Bennouna, Professor at the Faculty of Law,
Rabat;
Mr. Paul Isoart, Professor at the Faculty of Law, Nice;

for Mauritania: H.E. Mr. Moulaye el Hassen, Permanent Representative
to the United Nations;
Mr. Yedali Ould Cheikh, Assistant Secretary-General of
the Office of the President;
H.E. Mr. Mohamed Ould Maouloud, Ambassador;
Mr. Jean Salmon, Professor in the Faculty of Law at the
Université libre de Bruxelles;17 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

pour le Zaïre: M. Bayona-ba-Meya, Premier présidentde la Cour su-
prême du Zaïre, professeura la facultéde droit de
l'université nationaledu Zaïre;

pour l'Algérie: S.Exc. M. Mohammed Bedjaoui, ambassadeur d'Al-
gérie enFrance;
pour l'Espagne: S. Exc. M. Ramon Sedo, ambassadeur d'Espagne aux

Pays-Bas;
M. Santiago Martinez Caro, directeur du cabinet tech-
nique du ministre des affairesétrangères;
M. José M. Lacleta, conseiller juridique au ministère
des affairesétrangères;
M. Fernando Arias-Salgado, conseiller juridique au
ministère desaffairesétrangères;
M. Julio. Gonzalez Campos, professeur ordinaire de
droit international à l'universitéd'Oviedo.

12. La Cour examinerad'abord certains problèmes concernant la procé-
dure adoptéeen la présenteaffaire. Il a étdit entreautres que la Cour aurait
dû suspendrelaprocédure sur lefond desquestions qui lui ont été poséeset se
borner à connaître à titre interlocutoire des points suivants qualifiésde
préliminaires:la Cour est-elle en présence d'une question juridique? y a-t-il

pour la Cour des raisons décisivesde ne pas répondre? quel pourrait être
finalement l'effet des conclusions de la Cour sur la suite du processus de
décolonisation du territoire? Que ces points aient un caractère purement
préliminaireest cependant impossible à admettre et cela d'autant plus qu'ils
portent sur l'objet et la nature de la requête, lerôle du consentement dans la

présente instance,le sens et la portéedes questions posées à la Cour. Loin
d'avoir un caractère préliminaire,les points dont il s'agit sont des éléments
essentiels de l'affaire. Ausurplus, au lieu de faciliter le travail de la Cour, la
procéduresuggérée aurait entraîné un retard injustifiédans l'exercicede ses
fonctionset sa réponseàla requêtede l'AssembléegénéraleE . n l'occurrence,
laprocédureadoptéepar la Cour a pleinement offertla possibilitéd'examiner

tous les points indiquésplus haut, qui ont d'ailleurs été discutés lords'une
procédureorale prolongée.
13. Il a étdit aussi que,avant de seprononcer sur lesdemandes du Maroc
et de la Mauritanie tendantàla désignationdejuges ad hoc,la Cour aurait dû
déciderde façon définitives'ilexistait en l'espèceun différendjuridiqueentre
l'Espagne et cesdeux Etats. Cependant, commela Cour l'a dit dans l'affaire

des Conséquencesjuridiques pourles Etats de laprésence continue de l'Afrique
du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain)nonobstant la résolution276 (1970)
du Conseilde sécurité :

«la question de savoir si un juge ad hoc doit êtrenomméconcerne
evidemment lacomposition de la Cour et présente ..une priorité logique WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 17

for Zaire: Mr. Bayona-ba-Meya, Senior President of the Supreme
Court of Zaire, Professorat the Faculty of Law, National
University of Zaire;

for Algeria: H.E. Mr. Mohammed Bedjaoui, Ambassador of Algeria to
France;

for Spain: H.E. Mr. Ramon Sedo, Ambassador of Spain to the
Netherlands ;
Mr. Santiago Martinez Caro, Director of the technical staff
of the Minister for Foreign Affairs;
Mr. José M. Lacleta, Legal Adviser to the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs;
Mr. Fernando Arias-Salgado,LegalAdviserto the Ministry
of Foreign Affairs;
Mr. Julio Gonzalez Campos, Ordinary Professor of Inter-
national Law at the University of Oviedo.

12. The Court will firstconsider certain matters regarding the procedure
adopted in the present case. One is a suggestion that the Court ought to have
suspended the proceedings on thesubstance of the questionsreferred to it and
to have first confined itself to determining in interlocutory proceedings
certain issuessaid to be preliminary: whether the Court is confronted with a
legalquestion;whether there are compellingreasons forthe Court's declining

to reply to the request; whatthe eventual effectof the Court's findingsmaybe
in respect of thefurther process of decolonization of the territory.at these
issuesare of a purely preliminary character is,however,impossible to accept,
particularly as they concern the object and nature of the request, the role of
consent in the present proceedings, and the meaning and scope of the
questionsreferred to the Court. Far from having a preliminary character, they

constitute part of the substance of the case. Moreover, the procedure
suggested, instead of facilitating the work of the Court, would have caused
unwarîanted delay in the discharge of the Court's functions and in its
responding to the request of the General Assembly. In the event, the
procedure adopted by theCourt afforded a full opportunity for al1the above
issuesto be examined, and in fact they weredebated in extensiveproceedings.

13. Another suggestion is that, before pronouncing on the requests made
by Morocco and Mauritania for appointment of judges ad hoc,the Court
ought to have decided with finality whether there was in this case a legal
dispute between those States and Spain. However, as the Court said in the
caseconcerning the Legal Consequences for States of the ContinuedPresence

of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution 276 (1970):
"...the question whether ajudge ad hocshould be appointed isofcourse

a matter concerning the composition of the Bench and possesses ...18 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

-absolue.Elle doit êtretranchéeavantl'ouverture de la procédureorale et
mêmeavant que toute autre question, fût-elle procédurale, puisse être
décidée.Tant qu'elle n'est pas régléel,a Cour ne peut pas poursuivre
l'examen de l'affaire. Il est donc logiquement indispensable que toute

demande tendant à la désignation d'unjuge ad hocsoit traitéecomme
une question préliminaire sur la base d'une première appréciation des
faits et du droit. On ne sauraitdéduirede cela que la décisionde la Cour
àcesujet pourrait trancher de façon irrévocable un point de fond ou un
point ayant traità la compétencede la Cour ..affirmer que la question
dujuge ad hocne sauraitêtrevalablement réglée tant que la Cour n'a pas

été en mesure d'analyser des questions de fond revient à dire qu'il
faudrait laisser en suspens la question de la composition de la Cour et,
partant, laisserplaner un doute surlavaliditéde la procédure,jusqu'à un
stade avancéde l'affaire.»(C.I.J. Recueil 1971,p. 25.)

Il faut aussi noter que, si la Cour avait subordonné ses décisions sur les
demandes tendant àladésignationdejuges ad hocà uneconclusion définitive
sur les points qualifiésde préliminaires,le résultatpratique eût étéque ces
points - qui sont au nombre des plus importants etdes plus controversésen
l'espèce - auraient ététranchés avelca participation d'un jugede nationalité
espagnole et sans que la question de la désignation de juges ad hoc eût été

résolue. *

14. Aux termes de l'article 65, paragraphe 1,du Statut:

« LaCour peut donner un avisconsultatif surtoute questionjuridique,
à la demande de tout organe ou institution qui aura été autorisé par la
Charte des Nations Unies, ou conformément à ses dispositions, à

demander cet avis. »
La présenterequête a étéformuléeconformémen àtl'article 96,paragraphe 1,
de la Charte des Nations Unies, en vertu duquel l'Assembléegénéralepeut

demander à la Cour un avis consultatif sur toute question juridique.
15. Les questions soumises par l'Assembléegénéraleont étélibelléesen
termes juridiques et soulèvent des problèmes de droit international: le
territoire était-ilterra nulliusau moment de sa colonisation? quelsétaient les
liens juridiques de ce territoire avec le Royaume du Maroc et l'ensemble
mauritanien? Ces questions sont, par leur nature même,susceptibles de

recevoir une réponse fondéeen droit; elles ne seraient guère susceptibles
d'ailleurs de recevoir une autre réponse.11apparaît donc à la Cour qu'elles
ont en principe un caractèrejuridique. On peut ajouter qu'aucun des Etats qui
se sont présentésdevant elle n'a soutenu que les questions n'étaient pas
juridiques au sens de I'article96, paragraphe 1,de la Charte et de l'article 65,
paragraphe 1,du Statut. II est cependant nécessaire d'examiner la question
plus avant, car des doutes ont étéémisquant au caractère juridique des

questions vu les circonstances particulières de l'affaire. 19 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

16. Il a été soutenuque les questions poséespar l'Assembléegénérale
n'étaient pasdes questions dedroit mais étaient soit desquestionsdefait soit
des questions de portée purement historique ou académique.
17. Certes, pour répondre aux questions, la Cour devra établircertains

faits avant de pouvoir en évaluerla portéejuridique. Mais une question qui
présente àlafoisdesaspects de droit et defait n'enestpas moinsune question
juridique au sens de l'article6, paragraphe 1,de la Charte et de l'article 65,
paragraphe 1,du Statut. Commela Cour l'afait observer dans l'avisrendu sur
les Conséquencesjuridiques pour les Etats de laprésence continude l'Afrique

du Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain)nonobstant la résolution 276(1970)
du Conseildesécurité :
« Selonla Cour, cen'estpas parce que laquestion posée met enjeu des

faits qu'elle perd le caractère de ((question juridique ».au sens de
l'article6 de la Charte. On ne saurait considérerque cette disposition
oppose lesquestions de droit aux points de fait. Pour êtreàmêmede se
prononcer sur des questions juridiques, un tribunal doit normalement
avoir connaissance des faits correspondants, les prendre en considéra-
tion et, le cas échéant,statuereur sujet.» (C.I.J. Recueil 1971,p. 27.)

18. Les questions posées à la Cour limitent la période à prendre en
considération au moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne. On a émis
l'opinion que, pour être((juridique» au sens de l'article 65,paragraphe 1,du
Statut, une question ne doit pas avoir un caractère historique mais doit avoir
trait ou s'appliquer à des droits et des obligations existants. Or aucune
disposition de la Charte ou du Statut ne limite à des questions juridiques

relativesà des droits et obligations existants soit la compétence de 1'Assem-
bléegénéralepour demander un avis consultatif soit la compétence de la
Cour pour y donner suite. On trouve des exemplesd'avis consultatifs qui ne
concernaient ni des droits existants ni une question actuellement pendante
(entre autres Désignationdudélégué ouvrin er erlandaisà latroisièmesession
de la Conférenceinternationale du Travail, 1922, C.P.J-1.série B no 1).

Lorsque, dans l'affaireconsultative portant sur les Conditionsde l'admission
d'un Etat comme Membre des Nations Unies (article 4 de la Charte). ,.on a
soutenu que la Cour ne devrait pas connaître dine question poséeen termes
abstraits, la Cour a rejetécette thèseen disant:

« C'est là une pure affirmation dénuéede toute justification. Selon
l'article6 de la Charte et l'article 65 du Statut, la Cour peut donner un
avis consultatif sur toute question juridique, abstraite ou no»(C.I.J.
Recueil1947-1948,p. 61.)

Dans son avis consultatif du 12juillet 1973,la Cour a déclaré:

« Lefait que ce ne sont pas lesdroits des Etats qui sont en cause dans
la procédurene suffitpas à enlever à la Cour une compétence quilui est
expressément conféréepar son Statut. » (Demande de réformationdu WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 19

16. It has been suggested that the questions posed by the General
Assembly are not legal, but are either factual or are questions of a purely
historical or academic character.
17. It is true that, in order to reply to the questions, theCourt will have to

determine certain facts, before being able to assess their legal significance.
However, a mixed question of law and fact isnone the lessa legalquestion
within the meaning of Article 96,paragraph 1,of the Charter and Article 65,
paragraph 1,of the Statute. Asthe Court observed in itsOpinion concerning
the Legal Consequences for States oftheContinuedPresenceofSouthAfricain

Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council Resolution
276(1970):

"In the view of the Court, the contingency that there may be factual
issues underlying the question posed does not alter its character as a
'legalquestion' asenvisaged in Article96of the Charter. The reference in
this provision to legal questions cannot be interpreted as opposing legal
to factual issues. Normally, to enable a court to pronounce on legal
questions, it must also be acquainted with, take into account and, if

necessary, make findings as to the relevant factual issues." (I.C.J.
Reports 1971,p. 27.)

18. The questions put to the Court confine the period to be taken into
consideration to the time of colonization by Spain. The view has been
expressed that in order to be a "legal question" within themeaning of Article
65, paragraph 1, of the Statute, a question must not be of a historical

character, but must concern or affect existing rights or obligations. Yet there
is nothing in the Charter or Statute to limit either the competence of the
General Assembly to request an advisory opinion, or the competence of the
Court to giveone, to legal questions relating to existing rights or obligations.
There have been instances of Advisory Opinions which did not concern

existing rights nor an actually pending issue(e.g., Designationofthe Workers'
Delegatefor theNetherlands ut the ThirdSessionofthe International Labour
Conference, Advisory Opinion, 1922, P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 1). When
confronted, in the advisory case concerning Conditions of Admission of a
State to Membership in the United Nations (Article4 of Charter),with the

proposition that the Court should not deal with a question couched in
abstract terms, this Court rejected it in the following words:
"That is a mere affirmation devoid of any justification. According to

Article96of the Charter and Article65of the Statute, the Court may give
an advisory opinion onany legalquestion, abstractor otherwise." (I.C.J.
Reports 1947-1948, p. 61.)

And in its Advisory Opinion of 12July 1973the Court said:

"The mere fact that it isnot the rights of States whichare in issuein the
proceedings cannot suffice to deprive the Court of a competence
expressly conferred on it by its Statute." (Application for Review of 20 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

jugement no158 du Tribunal administratif des Nations Unies, C.I.J.
Recueil1973,p. 172.)

Bien qu'ils s'inscrivent dans des contextes assez différents, ces passages
indiquent que l'on ne doit pas interpréter restrictivement la référenceà

«toute questionjuridique »qui figuredans lesdispositions de la Charte et du
Statut mentionnées plushaut.
19. Ainsi, affirmer qu'un avis consultatif ne porte sur une question juri-
dique au sens du Statut que s'il se prononce directement sur les droits et
obligations des Etats ou des parties intéressésousur les conditions dont la
réalisationdonnerait lieuàla naissance, àla modification ou àl'extinction de

tels droits ou de telles obligations équivaudrait à interpréter trop restric-
tivement la compétence consultative de la Cour. Certes le cas habituel est
celui où un avisconsultatif seprononce surdes droits et obligations existants,
sur leur naissance, leur modification, leur extinction ou encore sur les
pouvoirs d'organes internationaux. La Cour peut néanmoins êtrepriéede

donner un avis consultatif sur des questions de droit qui n'appellent aucun
prononcédecegenre maispeuvent s'inscrire dans lecadre de problèmesplus
larges, dont la solution peut mettre en jeu de tels points.l n'en résulte pas
qu'elle soit moins compétentepour connaître de la requêtesi elle estime que
les questions sont juridiques, et pour rendre un avis consultatif si elleestime
qu'il n'existeaucune raison décisivede ne pas répondre.

20. La Cour dit en conséquence qu'elle est compétente en vertu de
l'article 65,paragraphe 1,du Statut pour connaître de la présente requêtepar
laquelle l'Assembléegénéralelui a soumis des questions mettant en jeu des
notions juridiques comme celles de terra nullius et de liens juridiques,
indépendamment du fait que l'Assembléene lui a pas demandé de se

prononcer sur des droits et obligations existants. En outre il ressort de la
résolution3292 (XXIX) que l'Assembléegénéralea sollicitél'avisde la Cour
en vue d'un objectif pratique et actuel, à savoir êtremieux à mêmede se
prononcer à sa trentièmesession sur la politique à suivre pour décoloniserle
Sahara occidental. Toutefois le problème de l'utilitéet de l'intérêptratique
des questions concerne non pas la compétence mêmede la Cour mais

I'opportunitéde son exercice. La Cour étudieradonc l'objection relative au
défaut d'objet pratique des questions poséesquand elle examinera s'il est
conforme à son caractère judiciaire qu'elle réponde à la demande d'avis
consultatif.
21. De même lefait qu'un Etat intéresséne consent pasà l'exercicede la
compétenceconsultative de la Cour concerne non pas cettecompétence mais

I'opportunité de son exercice, ainsi que cela ressort nettement de l'avis
consultatif rendu en l'affaire del'Interprétationdes traitésde paix conclus
avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie et la Roumanie, premièrephase, dont il sera
question plus loin. Par suite, bien que l'Espagne ait invoqué sondéfaut de
consentement pour objecter aussi bien à la compétence de la Cour qu'à

I'opportunitédeson exercice, c'estquand elle traitera de ce second problème
que la Cour examinera les points soulevéspar le défautde consentement. WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 20

Judgement No.158ofthe UnitedNations Administrative Tribunal,I.C.J.
Reports 1973,p. 172.)

Although these pronouncements were made in somewhat different contexts,
they indicate that the references to "any legal question" in the above-

mentioned provisions of the Charter and Statute are not to be inter-
preted restrictively.
19. Thus, to assert that an advisory opinion deals with a legal question
within the meaning of th'eStatute only when it pronounces directly upon the
rights and obligations of the States or parties concerned, or upon the

conditions which, if fulfilled, would result in the coming into existence,
modification or termination of such a right or obligation, would be to taketoo
restrictive a view of the scope of the Court's advisory jurisdiction. It has
undoubtedly been the usual situation foran advisory opinion of the Court to
pronounce on existing rights and obligations, or on their coming into

existence, modification or termination, or on the powers of international
organs. However, the Court may also be requested to give its opinion on
questions of law which do not cal1 for any pronouncement of that kind,
though they may have their place within a wider problem the solution of
which could involve such matters. This does not signify that the Court is any

the less competent to entertain the request if it is satisfied that the questions
are in fact legalnes, and to givean opinion onceit issatisfied that there isno
compelling reason for declining to do so. ,
20. The Court accordingly finds that it is competent under Article 65,
paragraph 1, of its Statute to entertain the present request, by which the

General Assembly has referred to it questions embodying such concepts of
law as terranulliusand legal ties, regardless of the fact that the Assemblyhas
not requested the determination of existing rights and obligations. At the
same time it appears from resolution 3292(XXIX) that the opinion issought
for a practical and contemporary purpose, namely, in order that the General

Assemblyshould be in a better position to decide at itsthirtieth sessionon the
policy tobe followedfor thedecolonization of Western Sahara. However,the
issueof the relevance and practical interest of the questions posed concerns,
not the competence of the Court, but the propriety of its exercise. It is
therefore in considering the subject of judicial propriety that the Court will

examinethe objection which has been raised in this connection, allegingthat
the questions are devoid of any useful object.

21. Similarly,the absence of an interested State's consent to the exerciseof
the Court's advisory jurisdiction does not concern the competence of the

Court but the propriety of its exercise, as clearly appears from the Advisory
Opinion concerning the Interpretation of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria,
Hungary and Romania, First Phase, to which reference will be made later.
Hence, notwithstanding the fact that Spain has based on the absence of its
consent an objection against the competence of the Court as well as the

propriety of its exercise, it is in dealing with the latter that the Court will
examine the issues raised by that lack of consent.

1221 SAHARA OCClDENTAL (AVIS CONSULTATIF)

22. En résuméb ,ien que la Cour estime avoir compétencepour connaître
de la présenterequête,ilrestea examiner si,dans lescirconstances del'espèce,
elledoit exercercettecompétenceou au contraire refuser de lefaire,soit pour

les raisons déjà indiquéessoitpour toute autre raison.

23. L'article65,paragraphe 1,du Statut quiconfèreàla Cour lepouvoir de
donner des avis consultatifs est permissif et le pouvoir qu'il lui atttibue ainsi
a un caractèrediscrétionnaire. Dans l'exercicede cepouvoir discrétionnaire,
la Courinternationale de Justice, de mêmeque la CO& permanente de~ustice

internationale, a toujours suivi le principe selon lequel, en tant que corps
judiciaire, elle doit rester fidèleaux exigences de son caractère judiciaire,
mêmelorsqu'elle rend des avis consultatifs. S'il lui est posé une question
juridique à laquelle ella incontestablement compétence pour répondre, elle
peut néanmoins refuserde le faire. Comme la Cour l'a déclarédans des avis
consultatifs antérieurs, lecaractèrepermissif de l'article 65,paragraphe,lui

donne le pouvoir d'apprécier si les circonstances de l'espèce sont telles
qu'ellesdoivent la déterminer a ne pas répondre a une demande d'avis.Ellea
dit égalementque la réponse constitue une participation de la Cour, elle-
mêmeorgane des Nations Unies, à l'action de l'organisation et qu'en
principe ellenedevrait pasêtrerefusée.En prêtantsonassistance a lasolution
d'un problèmequisepose àl'Assembléegénéralel,aCour s'acquitterait deses
fonctions d'organe judiciaire principal des Nations Unies. La Cour a dit en

outre qu'ilfaudrait des «raisons décisives»pour l'amener a opposer un refus
à une demande d'avis consultatif (voir Interprétationdes traitésde paix
conclus avec la Bulgarie, la Hongrieet la Roumanie,première phase,C.I.J.
Recueil 1950, p. 72; Conséquences juridiquespour les Etats de la présence
continuede ['Afriquedu Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest africain)nonobstant la
résolution276 (1970)du Conseilde sécuritéC , .I.J. Recueil 1971,p27).

24. L'Espagne a soulevéune séried'objectionstendant àdémontrer,selon
elle,que leprononcé d'unavisconsultatif en I'espèceseraitincompatible avec
le caractèrejudiciaire de la Cour. Certaines se fondent sur les conséquences
qui découlèraient dufait que l'Espagne n'a pas consenti à ce que la Cour se
prononce sur lesquestions portées devant elle. Une autre objection tientà ce

que ces questions auraient un caractère académique et ne seraient pas
pertinentes ou seraient dépourvues d'objet. L'Espagnea priéla Cour d'exa-
miner en priorité cette objection. La Cour traitera cependant des objections
fondées sur l'absence de consentement de l'Espagne a ce que la Cour se
prononce sur les questions posées,avant d'aborder l'objection visant le
contenu des questions elles-mêmes. WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 2 1

22. In surn, while the Court is satisfied of its competence to entertain the

present request, it rernains to be considered whether, in the circurnstances of
this case, it should exercisethis competence or, on the contrary, declineto do
so, whether on the grounds already referred to or for any other reason.

23. Article 65, paragraph 1,of the Statute, which establishesthe power of
theCourt to givean advisory opinion, ispermissive and, under it, that power

isof a discretionary character. In exercisingthis discretion, the International
Court of Justice, like the Permanent Court of International Justice, has
always been guided by the principle that, as a judicial body, it is bound to
remain faithful to the requirernents of its judicial character even in giving
advisory opinions. If the question is a legal one which the Court is

undoubtedly competent to answer, it may none the less decline to do so. As
this Court has said in previous Opinions, the permissive character of Article
65, paragraph 1,gives it the power to examine whether the circumstances of
the case are of such a character as should lead it to decline to answer the
request. It has also said that the reply of the Court, itself an organ of
the United Nations, represents its participation in the activities of the

Organization and, in principle, should not be refused. By lending its
assistance inthe solution of a problem confronting the General Assembly,the
Court would discharge its functions as the principal judicial organ of the
United Nations. The Court has further said that only "compelling reasons"
should lead itto refuseto givea requestedadvisoryopinion (cf. Interpretation

of Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungaryand Romania, First Phase, I.C.J.
Reports 1950,p. 72; Legal Consequencesfor States ofthe ContinuedPresence
of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution276 (1970),I.C.J. Reports 1971,p. 27).

24. Spain has put forward a series of objections which in its view would

render the giving of an opinion in the present case incompatible with the
Court's judicial character. Certain of these are based on the consequences
said to follow from the absence of Spain's consent to the adjudication of the
questions referred to the Court. Another relates to the alleged academic
nature, irrelevance or lack of object of those questions. Spain has asked the

Court to give priority to the examination of the latter. The Court will,
however, deal with the objections founded on the lack of Spain's consent to
adjudication of the questions,before turning to the objection which concerns
the subject-matter of the questions themselves.22 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

25. L'Espagne a formuléplusieurs observations sur le fait qu'ellen'a pas
consenti àla procédure, cequi, d'aprèselle,devraitamenerla Cour àrefuser
de rendre un avis consultatif. Ces observations peuvent se résumercomme

suit:
a) lajuridiction consultative estutiliséedans la présenteaffairepour tourner
le principe selon lequel la Cour n'a compétencepour réglerun différend

qu'avec leconsentementdes parties;
b) les questions telles qu'elles sont formulées soulèventdes problèmes
relatifsà l'attribution de la souveraineté territoriale sur le Sahara occi-
dental;
c) la Cour ne possède pas, en ce qui concerne les faits pertinents, les
renseignements lui permettant de se prononcer judiciairement sur les

questions posées.
26. La premièrede cesobservations se fondesur lefait que le23septembre

1974le ministre des affaires étrangèresdu Maroc a adresséau ministre des
affairesétrangèresd'Espagneune communication rappelant lestermes d'une
déclaration par laquelle Sa Majesté le roi Hassan II avait proposé le
17septembre 1974de soumettre conjointement à la Cour internationale de
Justice un problèmeénoncédans lestermes suivants:

«Vous prétendez,Gouvernement espagnol, que le Sahara était res
nullius.Vous prétendez que c'étaitune terre ou un bien qui était en
déshérence,vous prétendez qu'il n'yavait aucun pouvoir ni aucune

administration établissur leSahara; leMaroc prétendlecontraire. Alors
demandons l'arbitrage de la Cour internationale deJustice de La Haye ...
Elle dira le droit sur titr..))

L'Espagne a déclaré devantla Cour qu'elle n'apas consenti alors et ne
consent pasaujourd'hui àceque cettequestion soitsoumise àlajuridiction de
la Cour.
27. L'Espagneconsidèreque l'objetdu différenddont le Maroc l'ainvitée
à saisir avec lui la Cour au contentieux et l'objet des questions sur lesquelles
l'avisconsultatif est sollicitésont en substance identiques; aussi prétend-elle

que I'ona recouru àla procédureconsultative fauted'avoir réussiàporter ces
mêmesquestions devant la juridiction contentieuse. Donner l'avisdemandé
reviendrait donc, selon l'Espagne, à permettre que I'on se serve de la
procédureconsultative pour se passer du consentement des Etats, qui est àla
base de lajuridiction de la Cour. Sila Cour acceptait qu'un tel usage soit fait
de la voieconsultative, ladistinction entre lesdeux domaines dejuridiction de

la Cour s'effacerait etil serait porté atteinte au principe fondamental de
l'indépendance des Etats,qui verraient leurslitigesentre euxsoumis àla Cour
par cette voie indirecte sans leur consentement; cela pourrait aboutir à
l'introduction de la juridiction obligatoire par un vote majoritaire au
sein d'un organe politique. Cette manière de tourner le principe bien établi
dit consentement à l'exercice de la juridiction internationale constituerait, WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 22

25. Spain has made a number of observations relating to the lack of its
consent to the proceedings, which, it considers, should lead the Court to
declineto givean opinion. Theseobservations may be summarized as follows:

(a) In the present case the advisoryjurisdiction is being used to circumvent
the principle that jurisdiction to settle a dispute requires the consent of

the parties.
(b) The questions, as formulated, raise issues concerning the attribution of
territorial sovereignty over Western Sahara.

(c) The Court does not possess the necessary information concerning the

relevant facts to enable it to pronounce judicially on the questions
submitted to it.
26. The first of the above observations is based on the fact that on

23 September 1974the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Morocco addressed a
communication to the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Spain recalling the
terms of a statement by which His Majesty King Hassan II had on
17September 1974proposed thejoint submission to the International Court
of Justice of an issue expressed in the following terms:

"You, the SpanishGovernment, claim that the Sahara was res nullius.
You claim that it was a territory or property left uninherited, you claim
that no power and no administration had been established over the

Sahara: Morocco claims the contrary. Let us request the arbitration of
the International Court of Justice at The Hague. ..It will statethe law
on the basis of the titles submitted..."

Spainhasstatedbefore theCourtthat it did notconsent and does notconsent
now to the submission of this issueto thejurisdiction of the Court.

27. Spain considers that the subject of thedispute which Morocco invited
it to submit jointly to theCourtfor decision in contentious proceedings, and
the subject of the questions on which the advisory opinion is requested, are

substantially identical; thus the advisory procedure is said to have been used
as an alternativeafter the failureof an attempt to make useof thecontentious
jurisdiction with regard to the same question. Consequently, to give a reply
would, according to Spain, be to allow the advisory procedure to be used as a
means of bypassing the consent of a State, which constitutes the basis of the
Court's jurisdiction. If the Court were to countenance such a use of its

advisory jurisdiction, the outcome would be to obliterate the distinction
between the two spheres of the Court's jurisdiction, and the fundamental
principle of the independence of States would be affected, for States would
find their disputes with other States being submitted to the Court, by this
indirect means, without their consent; this might result in compulsory
jurisdiction being achieved by majority vote in a political organ. Such

circumvention of the well-established principle of consent for the exerciseof23 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVIS CONSULTATIF)

dans cette opinion, une raison décisive de refuser de répondre à la
requête.
28. A l'appui de ces thèses,l'Espagne a invoqué la règlefondamentale,

maintes fois réaffirméedans la jurisprudence de la Cour, selon laquelle un
Etat ne saurait,sans son consentement, êtreobligéde porter devant la Cour
ses différends avec d'autres Etats. Elle s'est fondée en particulier sur la
manièredont la Cour permanente de Justice internationale a appliquécette
règle à la juridiction consultative dans l'affaire du Statut de la Carélie

orientale (C.P.J.I. série No5). soutenant que le principe essentiel énoncé
dans cetteaffaire n'apas étmodifiépar lesdécisionsde la Cour actuelledans
ses avis concernant l'Interprétation des traités de paix conclus avec la
Bulgarie, la Hongrieet la Roumanie, première phase(C.I.J. Recueil 1950,
p. 65) et les Conséquencesjuridiquepour les Etats de laprésencecontinuede
l'Afriquedu SudenNamibie(Sud-Ouestafricain)nonobstantlarésolution 276

(1970) du Conseil de sécurité(C.I.J. Recueil 1971, p. 16). Le Maroc et la
Mauritanie ont soutenu, pour leur part, que les principes appliquésdans ces
deuxdécisionsvalentpour la présenteaffaireet que lemotif sur lequelrepose
la décisionen l'affaireduStatut de la Carélieorientalen'est pasapplicable en
l'espèce.

29. Il est clair que l'Espagne n'a pas consenti à ce que les questions
formuléesdans la résolution3292(XXIX) soient adresséesàla Cour. Ellen'a
pas acceptélaproposition du Maroc de soumettreconjointement àla Cour la
question soulevéedans la communication du 23 septembre 1974.L'Espagne
n'a pas répondu à la lettre formulant la proposition, ce que le Maroc a
interprété à juste titre comme un rejet de sa part. En ce qui concerne la

demande d'avis consultatif, les comptes rendus des débats de l'Assemblée
générale,à la Quatrième Commission et en séanceplénière,confirment que
I'Espagnea vu desobjections aceque la Cour soitpriéede donner un avissur
la base des deux questions poséesdans la requête.La délégation espagnole
s'estdéclarée disposéeà s'associerà la demande, àcondition que l'on ajoute
aux questions poséesune autre question destinée à réaliser un équilibre

satisfaisant entre l'exposéhistorique etjuridique du problèmeet la situation
actuelle considéréeà la lumière de la Charte des Nations Unies et des
résolutions pertinentesde l'Assembléegénéralerelatives à la décolonisation
du territoire. L'Espagne n'ayant cessé d'éleverdes objections contre les
questions formulées dans la résolution 3292 (XXIX), le fait qu'elle s'est

simplement abstenue et n'a pas votécontre la résolution nesaurait s'inter-
prétercomme signifiant implicitement qu'elleconsentait à ce que ces ques-
tions soient soumises à la Cour. Sa participation aux travaux de la Cour ne
saurait pas davantage s'interprétercomme un consentement àceque la Cour
se prononce sur lesquestions poséesdans la résolution3292(XXIX)car elle
a constamment maintenu ses objections tout au long de la procédure.

30. Ad'autres égardscependant, la position de l'Espagne dans la présente
instance necorrespond en rien àcequi existait dans la procédureconsultative
engagéedans l'affairedu Statut de la Carélieorientaleen 1923.En l'espèce,
l'undes Etats intéressén'étaitni partie au Statut de la Cour permanente ni à WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 23

international jurisdiction would constitute, according to this view, a
compelling reason for declining to answer the request.

28. In support of these propositions Spain has invoked the fundamental
rule, repeatedly reaffirmed in the Court's jurisprudence, that a State cannot,
without its consent, be compelled to submit its disputes with other States to
theCourt's adjudication. It has relied, inparticular,on the application of this
rule to the advisory jurisdiction by the Permanent Court of International

Justice in the Status of Eastern Carelia case (P.C.I.J., Series B, No. 5).
maintaining that the essential principle enunciated in that case is not
modified by the decisions of the present Court in the cases concerning the
Interpretationof Peace Treaties with Bulgaria, Hungaryand Romania, First
Phase(1.C.J.Reports 1950,p. 65)and the Legal ConsequencesforStates ofthe
Continued Presence of South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa)

notwithstanding Security CouncilResolution 276 (1970)(1.C.J. Reports 1971,
p. 16).Morocco and Mauritania,on theotherhand, have maintained that the
present casefalls within the principles applied in those twodecisions and that
theratiodecidendiof the Status ofEastern Careliacase isnot applicable to it.

29. It is clear that Spain has not consented to the adjudication of the
questions formulated in resolution 3292 (XXIX). It did not agree to
Morocco's proposa1for thejoint submission to the Court of the issueraised in
the communication of 23 September 1974.Spain made no reply to the letter

setting out the proposal, and this was properly understood by Morocco as
signifying its rejection bySpain. Asto the request for an advisory opinion,the
records of the discussions in theourth Committee and in the plenary of the
General Assembly confirm that Spain raised objections to the Court's being
asked for an opinion on the basis of the two questions formulated in the
present request. The Spanish delegation stated that it was prepared tojoin in

the request only if the questions put were supplemented by another question
establishinga satisfactorybalance between the historical and legalexposition
of the matter and thecurrentsituation viewedin the light of theCharter of the
United Nations and the relevant General Assembly resolutions on the
decolonization of the territory. In viewof Spain's persistent objections to the

questions formulated in resolution 3292 (XXIX), the fact that it abstained
and did not vote against the resolution cannotbe interpreted as implying its
consent to the adjudication of those questions by the Court. Moreover, its
participation in the Court's proceedings cannot be understood as implying
that it has consented to the adjudication of the questions posed in resolution
3292(XXIX), for it has persistently maintained its objections throughout.

30. In other respects, however, Spain's position in relation to the present
proceedings finds no parallel in the circumstances of the advisory
proceedings concerning the Status of Eastern Carelia in 1923. In that case,

one of the States concerned was neither a party to the Statute of the 24 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AV1SCONSULTATIF)

l'époque membrede la Société des Nations, etle fait que la Sociétédes

Nations n'avait pas compétence pour traiter d'un différendimpliquant des
Etats non membres qui refusaient son intervention a étépour la Cour une
raison décisivede s'abstenir de répondre.Dans la présente affaire,l'Espagne
est Membredes Nations Unies et a acceptélesdispositions de la Charte et du
Statut; elle a de ce fait donnéd'une manière générale son consentementà

l'exerciceparlaCour de sajuridiction consultative. Elle n'a pas objectéetne
pouvait pas valablement objecter à ce que l'Assembléegénérale exerceses
pouvoirs pour s'occuper de ladécolonisation d'un territoire non autonome et
demande un avis consultatif sur des questions intéressant I'exercicede ces
pouvoirs. Lors des débats à l'Assembléegénérale, l'Espagne nes'est pas
opposée à ce que la question du Sahara occidental en tant que telle soit

soumise à la juridiction consultative de la Cour; elle a plutôt élevédes
objections contre le fait que la demande d'avis se limitait aux aspects
historiques de la question.
31. Dans I'affaire de l'Interprétationdes traitésde paix conclus avec la
Bulgarie, la Hongrieet la Roumanie,premièrephase,laCour devait examiner

dans quellemesure les vuesexpriméespar la cour permanente dans I'affaire
du Statut de la Carélie orientaleétaient encore valables, eu égard aux
dispositions applicables de la Charte des Nations Unies et de son Statut. Elle
a notamment déclaré:

((Cette objection procède d'une confusion ente les principes qui
gouvernent la procédure contentieuse et ceux qui s'appliquent aux avis
consultatifs.
Leconsentement des Etatsparties àun différendestlefondement de la

juridiction de la Cour en matière contentieuse. Il en est autrement en
matièred'avis, alors mêmeque la demande d'avis a trait àune question
juridique actuellement pendante entre Etats. La réponsede la Cour n'a
qu'un caractère consultatif: comme telle, elle ne saurait avoir d'effet
obligatoire. Il en résulte qu'aucun Etat, Membre ou non membre des
Nations Unies, n'a qualitépour empêcherque soit donnésuite à une

demande d'avisdont les Nations Unies, pour s'éclairerdans leur action
propre, auraient reconnu l'opportunité. L'avisestdonnépar la Cour non
aux Etats, mais à l'organe habilitépour le lui demander; la réponse
constitue une participation de la Cour, elle-même«organe des Nations
Unies », à l'action de l'organisation et, en principe, elle ne devrait pas
êtrerefusée.» (C.I.J. Recueil1950,p. 71.)

32. Certes la Cour a affirmédans ce passage que sa compétence pour
donner un avis consultatif ne dépendait pas du consentement des Etats

intéressés, mêm lersque I'affaireavait trait à une question juridique actuel-
lement pendante entre eux. Mais si elle a ensuite insisté sur son caractère
judiciaire et la nature permissive de l'article 65, paragrap1,du Statut, elle
ne s'en est pas tenue là; elle a examiné aussi, se référant spécialementà
l'opposition decertains des Etats intéresséss,'ilétaitjudiciairementopportun

qu'elledonne un avisconsultatif. En outre elleasoulignélescirconstances qui WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 24

Permanent Court nor, at the time, a Member of the League of Nations, and
lack of competence of the League to deal with a dispute involving

non-member States which refused its intervention was a decisivereason for
the Court's declining to give an answer. In the present case, Spain is a
Member of the United Nations and has accepted the provisions of the
Charter and Statute; it has thereby in general given itsconsent to the exercise
by the Court of its advisory jurisdiction. It has not objected, and could not

validly object, to the General Assembly'sexercise of its powers to deal with
the decolonization of a non-self-governingterritory and to seek an opinion
on questionsrelevant to theexerciseof those powers. In the proceedings in the
General Assembly, Spain did not oppose the reference of the Western Sahara
question as such to the Court's advisoryjurisdiction: it objected rather to the
restriction of that reference to the historical aspects of that question.

31. In theproceedingsconcerning the InterpretationofPeace Treatieswith
Bulgaria, Hungaryand Romania, FirstPhase,this Court had to consider how
far the views expressed by the Permanent Court in the Status of Eastern
Careliacase werestill pertinent in relation to theapplicable provisions of the

Charter of the United Nations and the Statute of the Court. It stated, inter
alia :

"This objection reveals a confusion between the principles governing
contentious procedure and those which are applicable to Advisory
Opinions.
The consent of States, parties to a dispute, is the basis of the Court's
jurisdiction in contentious cases. The situation is different in regard to

advisoryproceedings even wherethe Request for an Opinion relates to a
legalquestion actually pending between States.The Court's reply isonly
of an advisory character: as such, it has no binding force. It follows that
no State, whether a Member of the United Nations or not, can prevent
the giving of an Advisory Opinion which the United Nations considers
to bedesirable in order to obtain enlightenment asto thecourse of action

it should take. The Court's Opinion isgiven not to the States, but to the
organ which is entitled to request it; the reply of the Court, itself an
'organ of the United Nations', represents its participation in the activi-
ties of the organization, and, in principle, should not be refused."
(1.C.J.Reports 1950,p. 71.)

32. The Court, it is true, affirmed in this pronouncement that its
competence to givean opinion did not depend on theconsent of theinterested
States, even when the case concerned a legal question actually pending

between them. However, the Court proceeded not merely to stress itsjudicial
character and the permissive nature of Article 65, paragraph 1,of the Statute
but to examine, specifically in relation to the opposition of some of the
interested States,the question of thejudicial propriety of givingthe opinion.
Moreover, the Court emphasized the circumstances differentiating the case 25 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVIS CONSULTATIF)

différenciaient l'affaire dont il s'agissait de celle duatut de la Carélie
orientale et expliquépour quels motifs particuliers elle était arrivée à la

conclusion qu'aucune raison ne l'obligeait à s'abstenir de répondre à la
demande. La Cour a ainsi reconnu que le défautde consentement pourrait
l'amener à ne pas émettre d'avis si, dans les circonstances d'une espèce
donnée, des considérationstenant à son caractère judiciaire imposaient un
refus de répondre. Bref, le consentement d'un Etat intéresséconserve son
importance non pas du point de vue de lacompétencede la Cour mais pour

appréciers'ilest opportun de rendre un avis consultatif.
33. Ainsi le défaut de consentement d'un Etat intéressé peut,dans cer-
taines circonstances, rendre le prononcéd'un avis consultatif imcompatible
avec le caractèrejudiciaire de laCour. Tel serait le cas si lesfaits montraient
qu'accepter de répondre aurait pour effetde tourner leprincipe selon lequel
un Etat n'est pas tenu de soumettre un différendau règlementjudiciaire s'il

n'est pas consentant. Si une telle situation devait se produire, le pouvoir
discrétionnaire que la Cour tient de l'article 65, paragraphe 1, du Statut
fournirait desmoyensjuridiques suffisantspour assurer lerespect du principe
fondamental du consentement àlajuridiction.
34. La situation dans laquelle la Cour se trouve n'est cependant pas celle
qui est envisagée plushaut. Il existe dans la présente affaireune controverse

juridique mais c'estune controverse qui a surgilorsdes débatsde ['Assemblée
généraleet au sujet de problèmes traitéspar elle. Il ne s'agit pas d'une
controverse née indépendamment, dans le cadre de relations bilatérales.
Dans une communication au Secrétaire générad le l'organisation des Na-
tions Unies en date du 10novembre 1958, le Gouvernement espagnol a
déclaré:« L'Espagne ne possèdepas de territoires non autonomes puisque

ceux qui sont soumis à sa souveraineté enAfrique sont considéréset classés
comme provinces espagnoles conformément à la législationen vigueur.»
Cela a amenéle Gouvernement marocain à exprimer «ses plus expresses
réserves» dans une communication adresséeau Secrétaire généralle 20 no-
vembre 1958 où il indiquait que le Maroc « revendique certains territoires
africains actuellement sous contrôle espagnol comme faisant partie inté-

grante du territoire nationB.
35. Le 12octobre 1961,alors quel'Espagne avaitacceptéde communiquer
des renseignements sur ces territoires, le Maroc a formulé devant la Qua-
trième Commission de l'Assembléegénérale « les plus expresses réserve»
quant aux renseignements que l'Espagne pourrait fournir sur les territoires
en question.« Ces villeset territoires, a-t-il déc,ont partie intégrantedu

Maroc et les statuts qui les régissentactuellement sont contraires au droit
international et incompatibles avec la souverainetéet l'intégrterritoriales
du Maroc. » Dans sa réponsesur ce point, l'Espagne a attirél'attention, à
propos du Sahara occidental, sur ladéclaration suivante qu'elleavait faite à
l'Assembléegénéralele 10octobre 1961:

«la présencesur les côtes occidentales d'Afrique, au cours de l'histoire,
de citoyens espagnols non soumis à la souveraineté d'autres payset se WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 25

then under consideration from the Status of Eastern Carelia case and
explained the particular grounds which led it to conclude that there was no
reason requiring the Court to refuse to reply to the request.Thus the Court
recognized that lack of consent might constitute a ground for declining to

give the opinion requested if, in the circumstances of a given case,
considerations of judicial propriety should oblige the Court to refuse an .
opinion. In short,the consent of an interested State continues to be relevant,
not for the Court's competence, but for the appreciation of the propriety of
giving an opinion.
33. In certain circumstances,therefore, the lack of consent of an interested

State may render the giving of an advisory opinion incompatible with the
Court's judicial character. An instance of this would be when the
circumstances disclose that to give a reply would have the effect of
circumventing the principle that a State isnot obliged to allow its disputes to
be submitted to judicial settlement without its consent. If such a situation
shouldarise,thepowers of the Court under thediscretion givento itbyArticle

65, paragraph 1,of the Statute, would afford sufficientlegal means to ensure
respect for the fundamental principle of consent to jurisdiction.
34. The situation existing in the present case is not, however, the one
envisaged above. There isin thiscase a legalcontroversy, but one which arose
during the proceedings of the General Assembly and in relation to matters
with which it was dealing. It did not arise independently in bilateral re-

lations. In a communication addressed on 10 November 1958 to the
Secretary-General of the United Nations, the Spanish Government stated:
"Spain possesses no non-self-governing territories, since the territories
subjectto itssovereignty in Africa are, in accordance with thelegislation now
in force,considered to be and classifiedas provinces of Spain". This gaverise
to the "most explicit reservations" of the Government of Morocco, which, in

a communication to the Secretary-General of 20 November 1958,stated that
it"claim[ed]certain African territories at present under Spanishcontrol asan
integral part of Moroccan national territory".

35. On 12October 1961,after Spain had agreed to transmit information
on the territories in question, Morocco formulated in the Fourth Committee

of the General Assembly "the strongest reservations" regarding any
information Spain might submit concerning them. "Those cities and
regions", it said, "formed an integral part of Morocco and the statutes at
present governing them werecontrary to international law and incompatible
with theterritorial sovereignty and integrity of Morocco". In answeringthese
reservations, Spain drew attention, with reference to Western Sahara, to the

statement it had made on 10October 1961in the General Assembly:

"...the historic presence of Spanishcitizens on the WestCoastof Africa,
not subject to the sovereignty of any other country and devoting 26 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

consacrant aux affairesou àla pêcheremonte bien loin eta étéconfirmée
conformément au droit international ..les souverains du Maroc ont
reconnu, à maintes reprises, que leur souveraineté ne s'étendaitpas

jusqu'aux côtes de la province espagnole actuelle du Sahara n.
36. La controverse juridique qui a ainsi surgi à l'Assembléegénéraleau

sujet du Sahara occidental est restéelatente de 1966à 1974,périodependant
laquelle le Maroc, sans abandonner sa position juridique, a acceptéI'ap-
plication du principed'autodétermination. La controverse a reparu quand le
Maroc a directement saisi l'Espagne de sa revendication juridique dans la
communication du 23 septembre 1974mentionnéeplus haut et ellea persisté;
cette communication n'a pas eu pour effetcependant de détacherledifférend

du débatsurla décolonisationàl'organisation des Nations Unies. Le Maroc
faisait la proposition de soumettre la question la Cour expressément afin
de guider l'organisation des Nations Unies dans la voie d'une solution
définitivedu problèmedu Sahara occidental D.
37. Aprèsson admission comme Membre en 1960, la Mauritanie a fait

valoir, au sein de l'organisation des Nations Unies, que le Sahara occidental
faisait partie de son territoire national. Elle étaitcependant disposéeà s'en
remettre à la volonté de la population et n'a pas saisi l'Espagne d'une
demande de caractèrejuridique comme l'a fait le Maroc.
38. Comme la Cour l'a indiquéprécédemment, l'Espagne considère que

lestermes de la note marocaine du 23 septembre 1974et ceux de la demande
d'avis consultatif sont en substance identiques. Or tel n'est pas le cas. Les
questions posées dans la requêtediffèrent essentiellement de celles qui
figurent dans la proposition marocaine en ce sens qu'elles introduisent le
problème des liens entre le territoire et l'ensemble mauritanien et situent
l'affairesoumiseàla Courdans un contexte différent.Lorsdesdébatsqui ont

eu lieuàl'Assembléegénéralel,esrevendications du Maroc et de la Maurita-
nie quant à l'existence de liens juridiques sont à maints égards apparues
comme contradictoires; durant la procédureoralequi s'estdéroulée devantla
Cour, plutôt que de contradictions, on a parlé de chevauchements dans
certaines régions.Dans lesdeux cas, l'interaction de cesdeux revendications
visant lemêmeterritoireintroduitune différencesubstantielle, qui va au-delà

d'un simple élargissement de la portée des questions posées. De toute
manière, la requêtecontient une disposition concernant l'application de la
résolution 1514(XV) de l'Assembléegénérale.Lesquestionsjuridiques dont
l'Assembléegénéralea saisi la Cour sesituent donc dans un cadre plus large
que celui du règlement d'un différend particulier et englobent d'autres

éléments.De surcroît, ces éléments nevisent pas seulement le passémais
concernent aussi le présentet l'avenir.
39. Ce qui précède permetde mieux déterminer l'objet de la demande
d'avisconsultatif. L'Assembléegénérale n'a pas eu pour but de porterdevant
laCour, sousla formed'une requêtepour avisconsultatif, un différendouune

controversejuridique, afin d'exercer plustard, sur la base de'avisrendu par
la Cour, ses pouvoirs et ses fonctions en vue de réglerpacifiquement ce WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 26

themselves largelyto fishing,goes back a very long way and has been
confirmed by international law ... [Vhe rulers of Morocco have
recognizedon repeated occasions that their sovereignty doesnot extend
to the coasts of the present Spanishprovince of the Sahara".

36. The legal controversy which thus arose in the General Assembly in
regard to Western Sahara remained in a latent state from 1966to 1974,a
period in which Morocco, without abandoning its legal position, accepted
the-application of the principle of self-determination. The controversy
reappeared when Morocco directly presented to Spain its legal claim in the
abovecommunication of 23 September 1974,and continued to subsist;this
communication, however, did not have the effect of detaching the dispute
fromthedecolonization proceedings of the United Nations. Thesubmission
of the issue to the Court was explicitly proposed by Morocco "in order to
guidethe United Nations towards a finalsolution ofthe problem of Western
Sahara.. .".
37. After it became a Member in 1960, Mauritania put forward in the
United Nations the claim that Western Sahara was a part of its national
territory. It washoweverprepared to acquiescein the willof the population
and did not confront Spain with a direct legal claim parallelÏti that of
Morocco.
38. As previouslynoted, Spain considers that the terms of the Moroccan
Note of 23 September 1974 and those of the request are substantially
identical. Thisis not however the case. The questions in the request differ
materially from those raised in the Moroccan proposal, in that the former

introducesthe issueofthetiesoftheterritory withthe Mauritanian entityand
places the case referred to the Court in a different context. In the General
Assembly debates the claims of Mauritania and Morocco to legal ties
appeared, in many respects,asconflicting;in the oral proceedingsbeforethe
Court they were described as overlapping in certain areas rather than as
conflicting. The interaction betweenthese two claims in respect of the same
territoryintroduces, ineithersituation, asubstantial difference,goingbeyond
amerebroadening inthescopeofthequestionsposed. Inanyevent,theterms
of the request contain a proviso concerning the application of General
Assemblyresolution 1514(XV).Thus the legalquestions of whichthe Court
hasbeen seisedarelocatedinabroader frameofreference than thesettlement
of a particular dispute and embrace other elements. These elements,
moreover,are not confinedto thepastbut arealsodirected tothe present and
the future.

39. The above considerations are pertinent for a determination of the
object of the present request. The object of the General Assemblyhas not
been to bring before the Court, by wayof a request for advisoryopinion, a
dispute or legal controversy, inorder that it may later, on the basis of the
Court's opinion,exerciseitspowersand functionsforthe peacefulsettlement 27 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

différendou cette controverse. L'objet de la requête est tout autre:il s'agit
d'obtenirdelaCour un avisconsultatif que l'Assembléegénérale estimeutile
pour pouvoir exercercomme ilconvient sesfonctions relativesàladécoloni-

sation du territoire.
40. Ainsi qu'il ressort du paragraphe 3 de la résolution3292 (XXIX),
l'Assembléegénéralea demandé un avis consultatif à la Cour pour êtreen
mesuredeseprononcer «sur la politiquàsuivrepour accélérerleprocessus
de décolonisationdu territoire.dans lesmeilleuresconditions,à la lumière
del'avisconsultatif.».L'objet véritabledela requêteestsoulignéaussidans
lepréambuledecetterésolutionoùilestdit qu9«ilesthautement souhaitable
que l'Assemblée générale obtienne,pour poursuivre l'examende cette ques-
tion lors de sa trentième session, un avis consultatif sur certains aspects
juridiques importantsdu problème ».
41. Ce que la Cour a déclaréen un contexte analogue, dans son avis
consultatif sur lesserves àla Conventionpourlaprévention et larépression

du crimede génocide, s'applique aussià la présenteaffaire: «L'objetde la
présentedemande d'avis est d'éclairerles Nations Unies dans leur action
propre » (C.I.J. Recueil 1951, p.19).Le fait que le Maroc a proposé à
l'Espagne, qui n'a pas accepté,de soumettre au jugement de la Cour un
différendsoulevantdesproblèmesliés àceuxqueposela requêtenesaurait ni
affecter ni diminuer l'intérêltégitimeque possède l'Assembléegénérale à
obtenir un avisconsultatif de la Courquanàson action future. Ilestdifficile
de voirpourquoi l'Espagne devrait, parce qu'unenote formulant la proposi-
tion a étenvoyée,consentir àcequelesquestionssoient soumises àlaCour,
alors queson consentementne serait pas nécessairesila note n'avait pas été
expédiée.
42. En outre,l'origineetlaportéedu différend, tellesqu'elsont décrites

plushaut, présententdel'importance quand ils'agitd'apprécier,du point de
vuedel'exercicepar laCour desonpouvoirdiscrétionnaire,lesconséquences
en l'espècedu défautdeconsentement de l'Espagne.Leproblèmequisepose
entre le Maroc etl'Espagne au sujetdu Sahara occidental ne concernepas le
statutjuridique du territoire'heureactuellemaislesdroits du Marocsurce
territoire au moment de la colonisation. Le règlementde ce problème sera
sans effet sur les droits que l'Espagne possède actuellement en tant que
Puissanceadministrante mais il aideral'Assembléegénérale à seprononcer
sur la politiqueà suivre pour accélérerle pocessus de décolonisationdu
territoire. Il en résulte que la position juridique de 1'Etatqui a refuséson
consentement à fa présente instance«ne sauraità aucun degré être com-
promisepar lesréponsesquela Cour pourraitfaire auxquestionsquiluisont
posées »(Interprétationdestraitésdepaixconclusavec la Bulgarie, la Hongrie

et la Roumanie,premièrephase, C.ZJ. . Recueil1950,p72).

43. L'Espagne a présenté d'une deuxième manière l'objection tirée du
défautde consentement; elleprétendqu'il s'agitd'un différendterritorial et WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 27

of thatdispute or controversy. The object of the request isan entirelydifferent
one: to obtain from the Court an opinion which theGeneral Assemblydeems
of assistance to it for the proper exercise of its functions concerning the
decolonization of the territory.

40. The General Assembly, as appears from paragraph 3 of resolution
3292(XXIX), has asked the Court foran opinion so asto be in a position to
decide "on the policy to be followedin order to acceleratethe decolonization
process in the territory...in the best possible conditions, in the light of the
advisory opinion.. .".The true object of the request is also stressed in the
preamble of resolution 3292 (XXIX), where it is stated "that it is highly

desirable that the General Assembly, in order to continue the discussion of
this question at its thirtieth session, should receive an advisory opinion on
some important legal aspects of the problem".
41. What the Court said in a similar context, in its Advisory Opinion on
Reservations to the Convention on the Preventionand Punishment of the
CrimeofGenocide, appliesalso to thepresent case:"The object of this request

for an Opinion is to guide the United Nations in respect of its own action."
(Z.C.J.Reports1951,p. 19.)The legitimate interest of theGeneral Assembly in
obtaining an opinion from the Court in respect of its own future action
cannot be affected or prejudiced by the fact that Morocco made a proposal,
not accepted by Spain, to submit for adjudication by the Court a dispute
raising issuesrelated tothose contained in the request. It is difficultto see on

what basisthe sending of the Note would make Spain's consent necessary for
the reference of the questions to the Court, if that consent would not
otherwise be needed.

42. Furthermore, the origin and scope of the dispute, as above described,
are important in appreciating, from the point of view of the exercise of the
Court's discretion, the real significance in this case of the lack of Spain's

consent. The issue between Morocco and Spain regarding Western Sahara is
not one asto the legal status of the territory today, but one as to the rights of
Morocco over it at the time of colonization. The settlement of this issuewill
not affectthe rights of Spain today asthe administering Power,but willassist
the General Assembly in deciding on the policy to be followed in order to
accelerate the decolonization process in the territory. It followsthat the legal

position of the State which has refused its consent to the present proceedings
isnot "in any way compromised by theanswers that the Court may giveto the
questions put to it" (Znterpretationof Peace Treaties withBulgaria,Hungary
and Romania, FirstPhase, Z.C.J.Reports 1950,p. 72).

43. A second way in which Spain has put the objection of lack of its
consent isto maintain that the dispute isa territorial oneand that theconsent

1928 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

que le consentement d'un Etat au règlementjudiciaire d'un différend con-
cernant l'attribution de la souveraineté territoriale est toujours nécessaire.
Lesquestions poséesdans la requêteneserattachent pourtant pas àun conflit
territorial, au sens propre, entre les Etats intéressés. Elne mettent pas en

cause devant la Cour la situation actuelle de l'Espagne en tant que Piiissance
administrante du territoire;larésolution3292 (XXIX) elle-mêmereconnaîtle
statut juridique actuel de l'Espagne comme Puissance administrante. La
validitédes titres auxquels l'Espagne doit d'être devenue Puissance adminis-
trante du territoire n'est pas non plus en cause devant la Cour et cela a été

reconnu pendant la procédure orale.La Cour estime que la requêtepour avis
consultatif n'appelle pas de sa part un prononcé sur des droits territoriaux
existants ni sur la souveraineté surun territoire. L'ordonnance de la Cour en
datedu 22 mai 1975n'implique pas non plus que la présente affaireconcerne
une revendication de nature territoriale.

44. Dans son exposé écrit, l'Espagnea exprimé d'une troisième manière
son opposition à ce que la Cour se prononce sur les questions poséesdans la
requête; ellea soutenu qu'en l'espècela Cour n'estpas en mesure de satisfaire

aux exigences d'une bonne administration de la justice pour ce qui est de la
déterminationdes faits. Selon elle l'attribution de la souveraineté territoriale
met normalement en cause des actes matériels relatifs à l'exercice de cette
souveraineté, et l'examen de ces actes et des titres correspondants suppose
nécessairement une vérificationapprofondie des faits. En matière consul-
tative, il n'y a pas à proprement parler de parties tenues de soumettre les

élémentsprobatoires nécessaireset l'on ne peut guère appliquer les règles
ordinaires relatives àla charge de la preuve. Dans ces conditions, l'Espagne
soutient que, faute de pouvoir se fonder sur des faits non controversés, la
Cour devrait s'abstenir de répondrepuisqu'elle ne disposerait pas de toutes
les donnéesdont elle aurait besoin et qu'une procédure contradictoire lui

fournirait.
45. Des considérations du mêmeordre ont jouéun rôle dans l'affaire du
Statut de la Carélieorientale.En l'espèce,la non-participation àla procédure
d'un Etat intéresséa accessoirement incité la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale à refuser de répondre. La Cour permanente a notéqu'il est
difficile d'établirles faits concernant le point essentiel d'une controverse

quand l'unedes parties refuse de prendrepart àl'instance.
46. Bien qu'en l'affaire duStatut de la Carélie orientalel'insuffisancedes
preuves ait étédue au refus d'un Etat de prendre part à la procédure, c'est
l'absence concrète des «renseignements matériels nécessairespour lui per-
mettre deporter un jugement sur la question defait »qui a étéconsidéré par
la Cour permanente comme l'empêchant, pour des raisons d'opportunité

judiciaire, de donner un avis (C.P.J.I. sérieB no 5,p. 28). Il s'agit donc de
savoir si la Cour dispose de renseignements et d'éléments de preuve suffisants
pour êtreàmêmediporter unjugement sur toute question de fait contestéeet WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 28

of a State to adjudication of a disputeconcerning theattribution of territorial
sovereignty is alwaysnecessary.Thequestions in the request do not however
relate to a territorial dispute, in the proper sense of the term, between the
interested States. They do not put Spain's present position as the

administering Powerof theterritory in issuebefore the Court: resolution 3292
(XXIX) itself recognizes the current legal status of Spain as administering
Power. Nor is in issue before the Court the validity of the titles which led to
Spain's becoming the administering Power of the territory, and this was
recognized in the oral proceedings. The Court finds that the request for an
opinion does not cal1 for adjudication upon existing territorial rights or

sovereigntyoverterritory. Nor does theCourt's Order of 22 May 1975 convey
any implication that the present case relates to a claim of a territorial nature.

44. A third way in which Spain, in its written statement, has presented'its
opposition to the Court's pronouncing upon the questions posed in the
request isto maintain that inthis casetheCourt cannot fulfilthe requirements
of good administration of justice as regards the determination of the facts.
The attribution of territorial sovereignty, it argues, usually centres on
material actsinvolving the exerciseof that sovereignty, and theconsideration

of such acts and of the respective titles inevitably involves an exhaustive
determination of facts. In advisory proceedings there are properly speaking
no parties obliged to furnish the necessary evidence, and the ordinary rules
concerning the burden of proof can hardly be applied. That being so,
according to Spain, the Court should refrain from replying in the absence of
facts which are undisputed, since it would not be in possession of sufficient

information such as would be available in adversary proceedings.

45. Considerations of this kind played a role in the case concerning the
Status of Eastern Carelia. In that instance, the non-participation of a State
concerned in the case was a secondary reason for the refusa1to answer. The

Permanent Court of International Justice noted the difficulty of making an
enquiry into factsconcerning the main point of a controversy whenone of the
parties thereto refused to take part in the proceedings.
46. Although in that case the refusai of one State to take part in the
proceedings wasthecause of the inadequacy of the evidence,it wai theactual
lack of "materials sufficient to enable it to arrive at any judicial conclusion

upon the question of fact" (P.C.Z.J., Series B, No, 5, p. 28) which was
considered by the Permanent Court, for reasons of judicial propriety, to
prevent it from giving an opinion. Consequently, the issue is whether the
Court hasbefore itsufficientinformation and evidenceto enable ittoarrive at
a judicial conclusion upon any disputed questions of fact the determination29 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

qu'illui faudrait établir pour se prononcer d'une manière conforme à son
caractèrejudiciaire.
47. La situation devant laquelle la Cour se trouve dans la présente espèce
est totalement différentede celle devant laquelle se trouvait la Cour perma-
nente dans l'affairedu Statut de la Carélieorientale.L'Espagne, le Maroc et

la Mauritanie ont fourni une très abondante documentation à l'appui des
faits qu'ils jugent pertinents pour l'examen des questions poséesdans la
requête auqueldoit se livrer la Cour et chacun de ces Etats, de mêmeque
l'Algérie et Zaïre, a présentésesvuessur cesfaits et sur lesobservations que
les autres Etats ont formulées.Le Secrétaire généraa l égalementfourni un

dossier de documents se rapportant aux débats sur la question du Sahara
occidental qui se sont déroulésdevant les organes compétents des Nations
Unies.LaCour considèreenconséquencequ'elledispose derenseignements et
d'éléments de preuve suffisantspour êtreàmêmede se prononcer judiciaire-
ment sur lesfaits qui sont pertinents aux finsdeson avisconsultatif et dont elle
a besoin pour répondre aux deux questions poséesdans la requête.

48. La Cour a été priéd ee dkclarer qu'ellene saurait examiner la présente
requête aufond, attendu qu'une réponse aux questions qui lui sont posées

serait dépourvue d'objet. L'Espagne estimeque les Nations Unies ont déjà
définile processus de décolonisation applicable au Sahara occidental, con-
formémentà la résolution1514(XV)de l'Assembléegénéralee ,t que celle-ci
a arrêtéla méthodeàsuivrepour la décolonisation,àsavoir une consultation
de la population autochtone au moyen d'un référendum organisé par la
Puissance administrante sous les auspices de l'organisation des Nations

Unies. Les questions poséesà la Cour sont donc, selon l'Espagne, sans
pertinence et les réponses à ces questions ne peuvent avoir aucun effet
pratique.
49. Le Maroc est d'avis que l'Assembléegénérale n'a pas définitivement
arrêtéles principes et techniques qui devraient être suivis et qu'elledemeure

libre de choisir entre toute une gamme de solutions s'inspirant de deux
principes fondamentaux: celui de l'autodétermination, énoncéau pa-
ragraphe 2 de la résolution 1514(XV), et celui de l'uniténationale et de
l'intégrité territorialedes pays, proclamé au paragraphe 6 de la même
résolution.LeMaroc souligneque ladécolonisation peutprendre la forme de
la réintégration d'une provincedans le pays d'origine dont l'adétachéle fait

colonial. Il s'ensuit que, d'après le Maroc, les questions poséessont perti-
nentes, parce que la réponsede la Cour mettra l'Assembléegénéralemieux à
mêmede choisir le processus le plus propre à assurer la décolonisation du
territoire.
50. La Mauritanie affirme que le principe de l'autodétermination est

indissociable de celui du respect de l'uniténationale et de l'intégrité terri-
toriale; que l'Assembléegénérale examinechaque question en fonction des
situations concrètes; qu'à plusieurs reprises elle a été amenéeà donner la WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 29

of which is necessary for it to give an opinion in conditions compatible with
itsjudicial character.
47. The situation in the present case is entirely different from that with
which the Permanent Court was confronted in the Status ofEasternCarelia
case. Mauritania, Morocco and Spain have furnished very extensive

documentary evidence of the facts which they considered relevant to the
Court's examination of the questions posed in the request, and each of these
countries, as well as Algeria and Zaire, have presented their views on these
facts and on the observations of the others. The Secretary-Generalhas also
furnished a dossier of documentsconcerningthediscussion of thequestionof
Western Sahara in the competent United Nations organs. The Court

therefore considers that the information and evidencebefore it are sufficient
to enable it to arrive at a judicial conclusion concerning the facts which are
relevant to itsopinion and necessary for replying to the two questions posed
in the request.

48. The Court has been asked to state that it ought not to examine the
substance of the present request, since the reply to the questions put to it
would be devoid of purpose. Spain considers that the United Nations has
already affirmed the nature of the decolonization process applicable to
Western Sahara in accordance with General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV);

that the method of decolonization-a consultation of the indigenous
population by means of a referendum to be conducted by the administering
Power under United Nations auspices-has been settled by the General
Assembly. According to Spain, the questions put to the Court are therefore
irrelevant, and the answers cannot have any practical effect.

49. Morocco has expressed the view that the General Assembly has not
finally settled the principles and techniques to be followed, being free to
choosefrom a wide range of solutions in the light of two basic principles: that
of self-determination indicated in paragraph 2 of resolution 1514 (XV), and
the principle of the national unity and territorial integrity of countries,
enunciated in paragraph 6 of the same resolution. Morocco points out that

decolonization may come about through the reintegration of a province with
themothercountry from which itwasdetached in the process of colonization.
Thus, in the view of Morocco,the questionsare relevant because the Court's
answer will place the General Assembly in a better position to choose the
process best suited for the decolonization of the territory.

50. Mauritania maintains that the principle of self-determination cannot
be dissociatedfrom that of respect for national unity and territorial integrity;
that the General Assembly examines each question in the context of the
situations to be regulated; inseveral instances, it has been induced to give 30 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

prioritéà l'intégritéterritoriale, en particulier lorsque le territoire avait été
créé par une Puissancecolonisatriceau détriment de 1'Etatou du pays auquel
il appartenait. Soulignant que les résolutions 1541 (XV) et 2625 (XXV) de
l'Assembléegénéraleenvisagentplusieursméthodeset variantes de décoloni-
sation, la Mauritanie considèreque, dans cesconditions, lesquestions posées

à la Cour sont pertinentes et qu'il convient d'y répondre.
51. L'Algériedéclarequeleprincipe fondamental régissantla décolonisa-
tion, consacrépar les articles1 et 55 de la Charte ainsi que par la résolution
1514(XV) de l'Assembléegénéralee , st celui du droit des peuples disposer
d'eux-mêmes;que, par ses résolutions successives recommandant que la
population soit consultéesur son avenir, l'Assembléegénéralea reconnu le

droit de la population du Sahara occidental à exercer l'autodétermination
dans desconditions de libertéet d'authenticité;que l'application de I'autodé-
termination dans lecadre decetteconsultation a étéacceptép ear la Puissance
administrante et appuyée par des institutions régionales et des conférences
internationales, ainsi que par les pays de la région. Dans ces conditions,
l'Algérie estd'avis que la Cour devrait répondre a la requêteet cela sans

perdre de vue que, dans la résolution3292 (XXIX), l'Assembléegénéralea
elle-mêmeconfirmésa volonté d'appliquer la résolution 1514 (XV), c'est-
a-dire de recourir à un systèmede décolonisation fondésur l'autodétermi-
nation despopulations du Sahara occidental.
52. Des argumentsdétailléset divergents ont étéprésentés àla Cour sur le
problème de savoir comment et sous quelle forme les principes de la

décolonisation s'appliquent en l'espèce,comptetenu des diverses résolutions
de l'Assembléegénérale surla décolonisation en généralet sur celle du
territoire du Sahara occidental en particulier. Ce problème n'est pas direc-
tement l'objet des questions portées devant la Cour mais on en fait la base
d'une objectiontendant a cequela Cour ne répondepasa la requête. Detoute
manière les principes applicables de la décolonisation appellent un examen
de la part de la Cour car ils constituent l'un des élémentsessentiels du cadre

ou s'inscrivent les questions poséesdans la requête.On ne saurait considérer
que lefaitque cesquestionsrenvoient a unepériodede l'histoirelie ougênela
Cour dans l'exercice de ses fonctions judiciaires. Cela ne serait pas com-
patible avec le caractère judiciaire de la Cour car, dans l'exercice de ses
fonctions, elleest nécessairementappeléeàtenir compte des règlesexistantes
de droit internationalqui se rapportent directement aux termes de la requête

et sont indispensables pour bien interpréter et bien comprendre son avis
consultatif (voirC.I.J. Recueil1962,p. 157).
53. L'idéeselonlaquellecesquestions sont académiqueset dépourvuesde
pertinencejuridique se rattache intimement à leur objet, pour la détermina-
tion duquel la Cour doit considérer non seulement le texte complet de la
résolution 3292 (XXIX) mais aussi l'arrière-pland'ensemble et les circons-

tances qui ont aboutia son adoption. La raison en est que la résolution3292
(XXIX) est la dernière en date d'une longue sériede résolutions de l'As-
sembléegénéralesur leSahara occidental.Toutes ces résolutions, ycompris
la résolution3292 (XXIX), ont étéelles-mêmesélaboréesdans le contexte WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 30

priority to territorial integrity, particularly in situations where the territory
had been created by a colonizing Powerto the detriment of a State or country
to which the territory belonged. Mauritania, pointing out that resolutions
1541(XV)and 2625(XXV)havelaid down various methods and possibilities

for decolonization, considers, in viewof the foregoing, that thequestionsput
to the Court are relevant and should be answered.
51. Algeria Statesthat theself-determination of peoples isthefundamental
principle governing decolonization, enshrined in Articles 1 and 55 of the
Charter and in General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV); that, through

successive resolutions which recommend that the population should be
consulted as to its own future, the General Assembly has recognized the
right of the people of Western Sahara to exercise free and genuine
self-determination; and that the application of self-determination in the
framework of such consultation has been accepted by the administering
Power and supported by regional institutions and international conferences,

as well as endorsed by the countries of the area. In the light of these
considerations, Algeria isof the viewthat the Court shouldanswerthe request
and, in doing so, should not disregard the fact that the General Assembly, in
resolution 3292(XXIX), has itself confirmed its willto apply resolution 1514
(XV), that is to Say, a system of decolonization based on the self-

determination of the people of Western Sahara.
52. Extensive argument and divergent views have been presented to the
Court asto how, and in what form, the principles of decolonization apply in
this instance, in the light of thevarious General Assembly resolutions on
decolonization in general and on decolonization of the territory of Western
Sahara in particular. This matter is not directly the subject of the questions

put to the Court, but it is raised as a basis for an objection to the Court's
replying to the request. In any event, the applicable principles of
decolonization cal1for examination by theCourt, in that they arean essential
part of theframework of thequestionscontained in the request.The reference
in those questions to a historical period cannot be understood to fetter or

hamper the Court in thedischarge of itsjudicial functions. That would not be
consistent with the Court's judicial character; for in the exercise of its
functions it isnecessarily called upon to take into account existing rules of
international law which are directlv connected with the terms of the reauest
and indispensable for the proper interpretation and understanding of its
Opinion (cf. 1.C.J. Reports 1962,p. 157).

53. The proposition that those questions are academic and legally
irrelevant is intimately connected with their object, the determination of
which requires the Court to consider, not only the whole text of resolution
3292(XXIX), but also the general background and thecircumstances which
led to its adoption. This isso because resolution 3292(XXIX) is the latest of

a long series of General Assembly resolutions dealing with Western Sahara.
Alltheseresolutions, including resolution 3292(XXIX), weredrawn up in the
general context of the policies of the General Assembly regarding the31 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

global de la politique de l'Assembléegénéraleconcernant la décolonisation
desterritoiresnon autonomes. Par suite, pour apprécierlebien ou mal-fondé
de l'opinion espagnolesur l'objetdesquestions posées,ilconvient de rappeler
brièvementles principes de base qui régissentla politique de décolonisation

de l'Assembléegénérale,les grandes lignes des résolutions antérieures de
l'Assembléesur la question du Sahara occidental ainsi que les travaux
préparatoires etle contexte de larésolution 3292(XXIX).

54. D'après l'article1,paragraphe 2, de la Charte des Nations Unies, l'un
desbutsdesNations Uniesestde: Développerentre lesnations desrelations
amicalesfondéessurle respect du principe de l'égalitde droitsdes peuples et
de leur droit à disposer d'eux-mêmes. Les articles 55 et 56 de la Charte
reprennent etdéveloppentcetteidée.Cesdispositionsintéressentdirectement
et particulièrement lesterritoiresnon autonomes que viselechapitre XI de la

Charte.Comme la Cour l'adit dans son avisconsultatif du 21juin 1971sur les
Conséquencesjuridique psourlesEtatsdelaprésence continudeel'Afriquedu
Sud en Namibie(Sud-Ouestafricain)nonobstantla résolution 276 (1970)du
Conseildesécurité :

«l'évolution ultérieuredu droit international à l'égarddes territoires
non autonomes, tel qu'ilest consacrépar la Charte des Nations Unies, a
fait de l'autodétermination un principeapplicableàtous cesterritoires »
(C.Z.J.Recueil1971, p. 31).

55. Le principe d'autodétermination en tant que droit des peuples et son
application en vue de mettre fin rapidement à toutes lessituations coloniales
sont énoncésdaiis la résolution 1514 (XV) de l'Assembléegénérale intitulée
« Déclaration sur l'octroi de l'indépendance aux pays et aux peuples colo-

niaux B. Dans cette résolution,l'Assembléegénérale proclame 6la nécessité
de mettrerapidement et inconditionnellement finau colonialismesoustoutes
sesformeset dans toutes sesmanifestations ».A cet effet,larésolutiondispose
notamment:

«2. Tous les peuples ont ledroit de libre détermination; en vertu de ce
droit, ilsdéterminentlibrementleur statut politique et poursuivent
librement leur développementéconomique,socialet culturel.

5.Des mesures immédiates seront prises, dans les territoires sous
tutelle, les territoires non autonomes et tous autres territoires qui
n'ont pas encore accédé à l'indépendance, pour transférer tous

pouvoirs aux peuples de ces territoires, sans aucune condition ni
réserve,conformément à leur volonté et à leurs vŒuxlibrement
exprimés, sans aucune distinction de race, de croyance ou de
couleur, afin de leur permettre de jouir d'une indépendanck et
d'une liberté complètes. WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 31

decolonization of non-self-governingterritories. Consequently, in order to
appraise the correctness or otherwise of Spain's view as to the object of the
questions posed, it isnecessary to recall brieflythe basicprinciplesgoverning
the decolonization policy of the General Assembly, the general lines of
previous General Assembly resolutions on the question of Western Sahara,
and the preparatory work and context of resolution 3292 (XXIX).

54. The Charter of the United Nations, in Articl1,paragraph 2,indicates,
as one of the purposes of the United Nations: "To developfriendlyrelations

among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and
self-determination of peoples ..." This purpose is further developed in
Articles 55and 56of the Charter. Those provisionshavedirect and particular
relevance for non-self-governingterritories, which are dealt with in Chapter
XI of theCharter. Asthe Court stated in itsAdvisory Opinion of 21 June 1971
on The Legal Consequencesfor States of the Continued Presence of South
Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security Council

Resolution 276 (1970):
"...the subsequent development of international law in regard to
non-self-governingterritories, asenshrined in the Charter of the United

Nations, made the principle of self-determination applicable to al1of
them" (I.C.J. Reports 1971,p. 31).
55. The principle of self-determination as a right of peoples, and its

application forthe purpose of bringing al1colonialsituations toa speedyend,
were enunciated in the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to
Colonial Countries and Peoples, General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV). In
this resolution the General Assembly proclaims "the necessity of bringing
to a speedy and unconditional end colonialism in al1 its forms and
manifestations". To this end the resolution provides interalia:

"2. Allpeopleshavethe right to self-determination; by virtue of that right
they freely determine their political status and freelypursue their

economic,social and cultural development.

5. Immediate steps shall be taken, in Trust and Non-Self-Governing
Territories or al1 other territories which have not yet attained

independence, to transfer al1 powers to the peoples of those
territories, without any conditions or reservations, in accordance
with their freely expressed willanddesire, without any distinction as
to race, creed or colour, inrder to enable them to enjoy complete
independence and freedom.32 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

6. Toute tentative visant à détruire partiellement ou totalement
l'uniténationale et l'intégritterritoriale d'un pays est incompa-
tib1.eaveclesbutset lesprincipes de laCharte des Nations Unies.»

Ces dispositions, en particulier celles du paragraphe 2, confirment et sou-
lignent ainsi que l'application du droit à l'autodétermination suppose l'ex-
pression libre et authentique de la volontédes peuples intéressés.
56. La Cour a eu l'occasion~d'évoquercette résolution dans son avis
consultatif du 21juin 1971mentionnéplus haut. A propos de l'évolutiondu

droit international relatif aux territoires non autonomes, la Cour s'est ainsi
exprimée:

« Une autreétapeimportante de cette évolutiona étéla déclaration
sur l'octroi de l'indépendance aux pays et aux peuples coloniaux
(résolution1514(XV) de l'Assembléegénéraleen date du 14décembre
1960)applicable àtous lespeuples et àtous lesterritoires «qui n'ont pas
encoreaccédéàl'indépendance. »(C.I.J. Recueil 1971,p. 31.)

La Cour a poursuivi en cestermes:

« la Cour doit prendre en considération les transformations survenues
dans le demi-sièclequi a suivi et son interprétation ne peut manquer de
tenir compte de l'évolutionque ledroit a ultérieurementconnue grâce à
la Charte des Nations Unies et à lacoutume »(ibid.,p. 31.)

Et la Cour concluait ainsi:

« Dans le domaine auquel se rattache la présente procédure les
cinquante dernièresannéesont marqué,comme il est dit plus haut, une
évolutionimportante. Du fait de cette évolutionil n'y a guèrede doute
que la ((mission sacrée de civilisation » avait pour objectif ultime
l'autodétermination et l'indépendance des peuples en cause. Dans ce
domainecommedans les autres, le corpusjuris gentium s'est beaucoup

enrichi et, pour pouvoir s'acquitter fidèlementde ses fonctions, la Cour
ne peut l'ignorer»(Zbid.,p. 31 et 32.)

57. La résolution 1514 (XV) de l'Assembléegénéralea étéla base du
processus de décolonisation quis'esttraduit, depuis1960,par la créationde
nombreux Etats,aujourd'hui Membresdes Nations Unies. Elleestcomplétée
souscertainsaspects par la résolution541(XV)de l'Assembléegénérale, qui
a été invoquée au cours de la procédure. Selon cette résolution,il y a plus
d'une manièrepour un territoire non autonome d'atteindre la pleine autono-

mie; il peut
a) devenir un Etat indépendant et souverain;
b) s'associerlibrement à un Etat indépendant;

c) s'intégrerà un Etat indépendant.
De plus certaines dispositions de la résolution 1541 (XV) donnent effet à
l'élémenetssentieldu droit àl'autodéterminationtelque l'établitla résolution WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 32

6. Any attempt aimed at the partial or total disruption of the national
unity and the territorial integrity of a country is incompatible with
the purpose and principles of the Charter of the United Nations."

The above provisions, inparticularparagraph 2,thus confirm and ernphasize
that the application of the right of self-determination requires a free and
genuine expression of the willof the peoples concerned.
56. The Court had occasion to refer to this. resolution in the above-

mentioned Advisory Opinion of 21 June 1971. Speaking of the develop-
ment of international lawin regardtonon-self-governing territories,theCourt
there stated:
"A further important stage in this development was the Declaration

on the Granting of ~nde~endenceto colonial Countries and Peoples
(General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) of 14 December 1960), which
embraces al1 peoples and territories which 'have not yet attained
independence'." (I.CJ. Reports 1971,p. 31 .)

It went onto state:
".. .the Court must take into consideration the changes which have

occurred in the supervening half-century, and its interpretation cannot
remain unaffected by the subsequent development of law, through the
Charter of the United Nations and by way of customary law" (ibid.).
TheCourt then concluded:

"In the domain to which the present proceedings relate, the last fifty
years, as indicated above, have brought important developments. These
developments leave little doubt that the ultimate objectiveof the sacred

trust was the self-determination and independence of the peoples
concerned. In this domain, as elsewhere, the corpus iuris gentiumhas
been considerably enriched, and this the Court, if it is faithfully to
discharge its functions, may not ignore." (Ibid., pp. 31 f.)

57. General Assembly resolution 1514 (XV) provided the basis for the
process of decolonization which has resulted since 1960 in the creation of
rnany States which are today Members of the United Nations. It is
complernented in certain of its aspects by General Assernblyresolution 1541
(XV), which has been invoked in the present proceedings. The latter

resolution contemplates for non-self-governing territories more than one
possibility, namely:
(a) emergence as a sovereign independent State;

(b) free association with an independent State; or
(c) integration with an independent State.
At the same time,certain of its provisions giveeffectto the essential feature of
the right of self-determination as established in resolution514 (XV). Thus 33 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

1514 (XV).C'estainsi qu'en vertu du principe VI1de la résoluti1541 (XV):
« La libre association doit résulterd'un choix libre et volontaire despopula-
tions du territoire en question,expriméselondesméthodesdémocratiques et
largement diffusées.»Suivant le principe IX:

« L'intégration devras'êtrefaite dans les conditions suivantes:

b) L'intégrationdoit résulterdu désir librement exprimédes popula-
tions du territoire, pleinementconscientesdu changementde leur statut,
la consultation se faisant selon des méthodes démocratiques et large-
ment diffusées,impartialement appliquées et fondées sur le suffrage

universel des adultes. L'Organisation des Nations Unies pourra, quand
elle lejugera nécessaire,contrôler l'application de ces métho»es.
58. La résolutio2625 (XXV) de l'Assembléegénéraleintitulé e Déclara-

tion relative aux principes du droit international touchant les relations
amicales et la coopération entre les Etats conformément à la Charte des
Nations Unies »,qui a étéévoquéeégalementdans la procédure, prévoit
d'autres possibilitésque l'indépendance, l'association ou I'intégration, tout
en réaffirmantla nécessitéfondamentale de tenir compte des vŒux de la
population en cause:

« La créationd'un Etat souverainet indépendant, la libre association
ou l'intégration avecun Etat indépendant ou l'acquisition de tout autre
statut politique librementdécidéparunpeupleconstituent pour cepeuple
des moyens d'exercer son droit à disposer de lui-même.» (Lesitaliques

sont de la Cour.)
La résolution2625 (XXV)dispose en outre:

«Tout Etat a ledevoir de favoriser,conjointement avecd'autres Etats
ou séparément, la réalisation du principe de l'égalitéde droits des
peuples et de leur droità disposer d'eux-mêmes, conformément aux

dispositions de la Charte, et d'aider l'organisation des Nations Unies à
s'acquitter des responsabilités que lui a conférées laCharte en ce qui
concerne l'application de ce principe, afin de:

b) mettre rapidement fin au colonialisme en tenant dûment compte de
la volonté librement expriméedes peuples intéressés.

59. La validitédu principe d'autodétermination, définicomme répondant
àla nécessitde respecterlavolontélibrementexpriméedes peuples, n'estpas
diminuéepar le fait que dans certains cas l'Assembléegénérale n'a pascm
devoir exiger la consultation des habitants de tel ou tel territoire. Ces
exceptionss'expliquent soit par la considération qu'une certaine population
ne constituait pas un«peuple » pouvant prétendre à disposer de lui-même,
soit par la conviction qu'une consultation eût été sans nécessitéaucune, en

raison de circonstances spéciales.
*
25 WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 33
principle VI1of resolution 1541 (XV)declaresthat: "Free associationshould

be the result of a free and voluntary choice by the peoples of the territory
concerned expressed through informed and democratic processes." Again,
principle IX of resolution1541 (XV)declares that:
"Integration shouldhave comeabout in the followingcircumstances:
...............................

(b) Theintegration shouldbe the resultof the freelyexpressedwishes
of the territory's peoples acting with full knowledge of the change in
their status, their wisheshaving been expressed through informed and
democratic processes, impartially conducted and based on universal
adult suffrage.The United Nations could, when it deems it necessary,
supervise theseprocesses."

58. General Assemblyresolution 2625 (XXV), "Declaration on Principles
of International Law concerning Friendly Relations and Co-operation
among States in accordance with the Charter of the United Nationsw,-to
which reference was also made in -the proceedings-mentions other
possibilitiesbesidesindependence,association or integration. Butindoingso
it reiterates the basic need to take account of the wishes of the people
concerned:

"The establishment of a sovereign and independent State, the free
association or integration with an independent Stateor the emergence
into any other political statusieely determined by a people constitute
modes of implementingthe right of self-determination by that people."
(Emphasis added.)

Resolution 2625 (XXV)further provides that:

"Every State has the duty to promote, through joint and separate
action,realizationoftheprinciple ofequalrightsand self-determination
of peoples in accordance with the provisions of the Charter, and to
render assistance to the United Nations in carrying out the
responsibilities entrusted to it by the Charter regarding the
implementation of the principle, inorder:
...............................

(b) Tobring aspeedyend tocolonialism,havingdueregardto thefreely
expressedwillof thepeoplesconcerned."
59.Thevalidityof the principle of self-determination, definedasthe need
to pay regard to the freely expressedwill of peoples,is not affected by the
fact that in certain cases the General Assembly has dispensed with the
requirement of consulting the inhabitants of a given territory. Those

instances werebased eitherontheconsideration that acertainpopulation did
not constitute a "people" entitled to self-determination or on the conviction
that a consultation wastotally unnecessary,in viewofspecialcircumstances. 34 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVIS CONSULTATIF)

60. Après avoir énoncéles principes fondamentaux régissant la politique
de décolonisation de l'Assembléegénérale,la Courva examiner maintenant
lesrésolutions quiconcernent plus spécialementla décolonisation duSahara

occidental. Elle doit les analyser pour apprécier le bien-fondé de l'opi-
nion selon laquelle les questions poséesdans la résolution 3292 (XXIX)
manquent d'objet. Il est utile de comparer en particulier les diverses façons
dont les résolutionsde l'Assembléegénérale adoptéesde 1966 à 1969 ont
traitédes questions d'Ifni et du Satiara occidental.
61. En 1966, au Comité spécial chargé d'étudier ls aituation en ce qui

concerne l'application de la déclaration sur l'octroi de l'indépendance aux
pays et aux peuples coloniaux, l'Espagne a pris position en faveur de la
décolonisation du Sahara occidental au moyen de l'exercice,par la popula-
tion du territoire, de son droit àl'autodétermination. Cette suggestiona reçu
à l'époque l'appuide la Mauritanie et l'assentiment du Maroc. Dans le cas
d'Ifni, l'Espagne a suggéréune prise de contact avec le Maroc à titre de
mesurepréliminaire. Le Maroc a déclaréque la décolonisation d'Ifni devait

correspondre aux stipulations du paragraphe 6 de la résolution1514(XV).
62. Sur proposition du Comité spécial,l'Assembléegénéralea adopté la
résolution 2229 (XXI), qui traitait différemmentd'Ifni et du Sahara occi-
dental. Dans le cas d'Ifni, l'Assembléegénérale:

«3. Demande à la Puissance administrante de rendre immédiate-
ment les mesures nécessairespour accélérerla déc'olonisationd'Ifni et
d'arrêter avecle Gouvernement marocain. comDtetenu des as~irations
de la population autochtone, des modalitésde transfert des pouvoirs,

conformément aux dispositions de la résolution1514 (XV) de l'Assem-
bléegénérale.»
Au sujetdu Sahara occidental, elle:

«4. Invitela Puissance administrante àarrêterle plus tôt possible, en
corformité avecles aspirations de la population autochtone du Sahara

espagnolet en consultation avec lesGouvernements marocain et mauri-
tanien et toute autre partie intéressée,les modalités de l'organisation
d'un référendumqui sera tenu sous les auspices de l'organisation des
Nations Unies afinde permettre àla population autochtone du territoire
d'exercer librement son droit l'autodétermination...»

Etaient en outre énoncéesau sujet de ceterritoire diverses conditions visant à
assurer la libre expression de la volonté populaire et prévoyant notamment
l'octroi de facilités Dar la Puissance administrante à une ((mission des
Nations Unies pour qu'elle puisseparticiper activementàl'organisation et au

déroulement du référendum».
63. La résolution2229 (XXI) a servi de modèle à une sériede résolutions
dont les dispositions sur le Sahara occidental étaient presque identiques en
substance. Elles nes'enécartaientque par quelques variations mineures. En
1967 le dispositif de la résolution2354 (XXII) a été scinden deux parties,
l'unerelative àIfni etl'autre auSahara occidental; ilen ade même en 1968 WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 34
60. Having set out the basic principles governing the decolonization

policy of the General Assembly, the Court now turns to those resolutions
which bear specifically on the decolonization of Western Sahara. Their
analysis is necessary in order to determine the validity of the view that the
questions posed in resolution 3292 (XXIX) lack object. In particular it is
pertinent to compare the different ways in which the General Assembly

resolutions adopted from 1966to 1969dealt with the questions of Ifni and
Western Sahara.
61. In 1966,in the Special Committee on the Situation with regard to the
Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to
Colonial Countries and Peoples, Spain expressed itself in favour of the
decolonization of Western Sahara through the exercise by the population of

the territory of their right to self-determination. At that time this suggestion
received the support of Mauritania and the assent of Morocco. As to Ifni,
Spain suggested establishing contact with Morocco as a preliminary step.
Morocco stated that the decolonization of Ifni should be brought into line
with paragraph 6 of resolution 1514(XV).

62. On the basis of the proposals of the Special Committee, the General
Assembly adopted resolution 2229 (XXI), which dealt differently with Ifni
and Western Sahara. In the case of Ifni, the resolution:

"3. Requests the administering Power to take immediately the
necessary steps to acceleratethe decolonization of Ifni and to determine
with the Government of Morocco,bearing in mind the aspirations of the
indigenous population, procedures for the transfer of powers in
accordance with the provisions of General Assembly resolution 1514

(XV)."
In the case of Western Sahara, the resolution:

"4. Invites the administering Power to determine at the earliest
possible date, in conformity with the aspirations of the indigenous
people of Spanish Sahara and in consultation with the Governments of

Mauritaniaand Morocco and any other interested Party, the procedures
for the holding of a referendum under United Nations auspices with a
view to enabling the indigenous population of the Territory to exercise
freely its right,to self-determinati..."

In respect of this territory the resolution also set out conditions designed to
ensure thefreeexpression of the willof thepeople,including the provision by
the administering Power of "facilities to a United Nations mission so that it
may be able to participate actively in the organization and holding of the

referendum".
63. Resolution 2229 (XXI) was the model for a series of resolutions the
provisions of which regarding Western Sahara werein theirsubstance almost
identical. Only a fewminor variations wereintroduced. In 1967theoperative
part of resolution 2354 (XXII) was divided into two sections, one dealing

with Ifni and the other with Western Sahara; and in 1968 resolution 242835 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

de la résolution 2428 (XXIII) qui comportait un préambule notant «la
différencede nature des statuts juridiques de cesdeux territoires, ainsi que les

processus de décolonisation prévuspar la résolution2354 (XXII) de l'As-
semblée généralp eour ces territoire».A partir de 1969Ifni, décolonisépar
suite de son transfert au Maroc, n'estplus mentionnédans les résolutionsde
l'Assembléegénérale.
64. Au cours des années suivantes, l'Assembléegénéralen'a pas changé
d'attitude sur la question du Sahara occidental; elle a réitéré en termes plus

pressants la nécessitéde consulter la population du territoire sur son avenir
politique. La résolution 2983 (XXVII) de 1972 réaffirmait en fait «la
responsabilitéde l'organisation desNations Unies dans toutes consultations
devant aboutir à l'expression libre de la volonté despopulations-». Dansla
résolution 3162 (XXVIII) de 1973, tout en déplorant que la mission des
Nations Unies dont laparticipation active àl'organisation et au déroulement

du référendumétaitrecommandéedepuis1966n'ait pasencoreétéen mesure
de se rendre dans le territoire, l'Assembléegénéraleréaffirmait:
«son attachement au principe de I'autodétermination et son souci de

voir appliquer ceprincipe dans un cadre qui garantisseauxhabitants du
Sahara sous domination espagnole l'expression libre et authentique de
leur volonté,conformément aux résolutions pertinentes de l'Organisa-
tion des Nations Unies dans ce domaine ».

65. De 1966à 1973toutes ces résolutionsont été adoptéesnon sans que le
Maroc et la Mauritanie aient rappelé que, d'aprèseux, le Sahara occidental
constituaitunepartieintégrante de leurterritoire. EnmêmetempsleMaroc et
la Mauritanie acquiesçaient à la tenue d'un référendum. Ces Etats,parmi

d'autres, alléguantque l'Espagne ne respectait pas les recommandations de
I'Assembléegénéraleo , nt soulignéque le référendum devait sedéroulerdans
desconditions satisfaisantes et sous lecontrôle de l'organisation des Nations
Unies.

66. Une modification significative a étéintroduite dans la résolution3292
(XXIX) par laquelle la Cour est saisie de la présente requêtepour avis
consultatif. Au paragraphe 3 de la résolution, la Puissanceadministrante est
invitéeinstammentà«surseoir au référendumqu'ellea envisagéd'organiser
auSahara occidental ».Mais l'Assembléegénérale prendgrand soin d'insérer

dans letexte des dispositions précisantqu'un tel renvoi ne porteatteinte ni ne
touche au droità I'autodéterminationdespopulations du Sahara occidental,
conformément à la résolution1514(XV).
67. Les dispositions en question contiennent trois mentions expresses de
la résolution1514(XV). Lors des débatsqui se sont déroulésà l'Assemblée
généraleu ,n desauteurs de la résolution3292(XXIX) - lereprésentantde la
Côte d'Ivoire -, après avoir dit du texte en discussion qu'il résultait d'un

compromis, a attirél'attention sur ces mentions et expliquéqu'on les avait WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 35

(XXIII), similarly divided, included a preamble noting "the difference in
nature of the legal status ofese two Territories, as well as the processes of
decolonization envisaged by General Assembly resolution 2354 (XXII) for
these Territories". Since1969 Ifni, having been decolonized by transfer to
Morocco, has no longer appeared in the resolutions of the Assembly.

64. In subsequent years, theGeneral Assemblymaintained itsapproach to

the question of Western Sahara, and reiterated in more pressing terms the
need to consult the wishes of the people of the territory as to their political
future. Indeed resolution 2983 (XXVII) of 1972 expressly reaffirms "the
responsibility of the United Nations in al1consultationsintended to lead to
the freeexpressionof the wishesof the people". Resolution3162 (XXVIII) of
1973, whiledeploring the fact that the United Nations mission whose active
participation in the organization and holding of the referendum had been

recommended since 1966 had not yet been able to visitthe territory, reaffirms
the General Assembly's:
"...attachment to the principle of self-determination and itsconcern to

see that principle applied with a framework that will guarantee the
inhabitants of the Saharaunder Spanish domination free and authentic
expression of their wishes, in accordance with the relevant United
Nations resolutions on the subject".

65. All these resolutions from 1966 to 1973 were adopted in the face of
reminders by Morocco and Mauritania of their respective claims that
Western Sahara constituted an integral part of their territory. At the same
timeMorocco and Mauritania assented to theholding of a referendum. These
States, among others, alleging that the recommendations of the General
Assembly were being disregarded by Spain, emphasized the need for the
referendum to be held insatisfactory conditions and under the supervision of

the United Nations.

66. A significant change was introduced in resolution 3292 (XXIX) by
which the Court is seisedof the present request for an advisory opinion. The
administering Power is urged in paragraph 3 of the resolution "to postpone

the referendum it contemplated holding in Western Sahara". The General
Assemblytook special care, however, to insert provisions making it clear that
such a postponement did not prejudice or affect the right of the people of
Western Sahara to self-determination in accordance with resolution 1514
(XV).
67. The provisions in question contain three express references to
resolution1514 (XV). In theGeneral Assembly debates the representativeof

the Ivory Coast, one of the sponsors of resolution 3292 (XXIX), after
describing the text before the General Assembly as the result of a
compromise, called attention to these references to resolution 1514 (XV),36 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

introduites dans le texte initial pour permettre à l'Assembléegénéralede
rester conséquente avec elle-même.Vu les termes de la résolution 3292

(XXIX), il faut entendre par là que l'on a voulu assurer la cohérencede ce
texte par rapport aux résolutions antérieuresde l'Assembléegénérale.

68. Le troisième alinéa du préambule de la résolution 3292 (XXIX)
réaffirme «le droit à I'autodétermination des populations du Sahara
espagnol, conformément à la résolution 1514 (XV) B. Le paragraphe 1 du

dispositif, où sont formuléesles questions soumises a la Cour, demande à
celle-ci de donner un avis consultatif ((sans préjudicede l'application des
principes contenus dans la résolution1514(XV) de l'Assembléegénérale ».
Cette mention de la résolution 1514(XV) se rapporte donc à la demande
d'avis consultatif elle-même.La référenceà l'application des principes

consacrés par la résolution 1514 (XV) doit nécessairement s'interpréter
compte tenu de la réaffirmationpar l'Assembléegénéralea ,u troisièmealinéa
du préambule,du ((droit à I'autodétermination despopulations du Sahara
espagnol, conformément àla résolution1514(XV) ».
69. Au paragraphe 3 du dispositif, la Puissance administrante est invitée
instamment à surseoir au référendum « tant que l'Assembléegénérale nese

sera pas prononcée sur la politique à suivre pour accélérerle processus de
décolonisationdu territoire, conformément àla résolution1514(XV) ))Cette
troisième référenceà la résolution 1514 (XV), qui doit également être
rapprochée du préambule,indique que la résolutionrégit ((le processus de
décolonisation du territoire » et «la politique à suivre pour accélér» ce
processus.

70. Bref, le processus de décolonisation qui doit êtreaccéléré eq tue
l'Assembléegénérale envisagedans cette disposition est un processus qui
respectera le droit des populations du Sahara occidental de déterminerleur
statut politique futur par la libre expression de leur volonté.Ce droit n'est
modifiéni par la présente requête pour avis consultatif ni par la résolution
3292 (XXIX) qui le réaffirmeexpressémentau contraire. Le droit de ces

populations à I'autodétermination constitue donc un élémentde base des
questions adresséesà la Cour. -
71. Il reste à vérifier sil'application à la décolonisation du Sahara
occidental du droit à I'autodétermination rendsans objet lesdeux questions
poséesà la Cour. Celle-ci a déjàconclu que les deux questions doivent être

examinéesdans le cadre global du processus de décolonisation. Le droit à
I'autodéterminationlaisseàl'Assembléegénéraleune certainelatitude quant
aux formes et aux procédésselon lesquelsce droit doit êtremis en Œuvre.

72. Un avis consultatif de la Cour sur le statut juridique du territoire au
moment de la colonisation espagnole et surla nature des liens qui pouvaient

exister alors avec le Maroc et l'ensemble mauritanien pourrait aider l'As-
semblée générald eans les décisionsqu'elle est appeléeà prendre. L'Assem-
blée générale a indiqué son intention de « poursuivre l'examen de cette
question ))à la lumièrede l'avisconsultatif de la Cour. En examinant l'objet WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 36

explaining that they had been introduced into the original text in order to
enable the General Assembly to be consistent. In the light of the terms of
resolution 3292 (XXIX) this must be understood as indicating the intention
to ensure the consistency of that resolution with previous resolutions of the

General Assembly.
68. The third paragraph in the preamble of resolution 3292 (XXIX)
reaffirms "the right of the population of the Spanish Sahara to self-
determination in accordance with resolution 1514(XV)". In paragraph 1
of the operative part, where the questions asked of the Court are formulated,

the Court isrequested,"without prejudice to the application of the principles
embodied in General Assembly resolution 1514(XV)", to give its advisory
opinion. This mention of resolution 1514(XV) is thus made to relate to the
actual request for the opinion. The reference to the application of the
principles embodied in resolution 1514(XV)has necessarily to be read in the

light of the General Assembly's reaflïrmation in the third paragraph of the
preamble of "the right of the population of the Spanish Sahara to
self-determination in accordance with resolution 1514(XV)".
69. In paragraph 3 of the operative part it is urged thàt the referendum be
postponed "until the General Assembly decides on the policy to be followed
in order to accelerate the decolonization process in the territory, in

accordance with resolution 1514 (XV)". This third mention of resolution
1514(XV),which has also to be read in the light of the preamble, thus refers
to itasgoverning"the decolonization process in theterritory" and "the policy
to be followed in order to accelerate" that process.

70. In short, the decolonization process to be accelerated which is

envisaged by the General Assembly in this provision isone which willrespect
the right of the population of Western Sahara to determine their future
political status by their own freelyexpressed will.This right isnot affectedby
the present request for an advisory opinion, nor by resolution3292(XXIX);
on the contrary, it is expressly reaffirmed in that resolution. The right of that

population to self-determination constitutes therefore a basic assumption of
the questions put to the Court.
71. It remains to be ascertained whether the application of the right of
self-determination to the decolonization of Western Sahara renders without
object the two specific questions put to the Court. The Court has already
concluded that the two questions must be considered in the whole context of

thedecolonization process.The right ofself-determination leavestheGeneral
Assemblya measure of discretion with respectto theforms and procedures by
which that right is to be realized.
72. An advisory opinion of the Court on the legal status of the territory at
the time of Spanish colonization and on the nature of any ties then existing

with Morocco and with the Mauritanian entity may assist the General
Assembly in the future decisions which it isalled upon to take. The General
Assembly has referred to its intention to ':continue its discussion of this
question" in the light of the Court's advisory opinion. The Court, when 37 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

des questions conformément au texte de la résolution3292(XXIX), la Cour
ne peut manquer de prendre acte de cette déclaration. Pour ce qui est de

l'action futurede l'Assembléegénérale,diversespossibilitésexistene tn cequi
concerne par exemple les consultations entre les Etats intéressés etles
procédureset garanties nécessairespour assurer l'expression libre et authen-
tique de la volontédes populations. De façon générale,l'avisconsultatif que
rendra la Cour en l'espècefournira à l'Assembléegénérale des élémend tse

caractère juridique qui lui seront utiles quand elle traitera à nouveau de la
décolonisation du Sahara occidental.
73. De toute manière, il n'appartient pas à la Cour de dire dans quelle
mesureni jusqu'à quel point son avisdevra influencerl'action de l'Assemblée
généraleL. a fonction de laCour estde donner un avis fondéen droit, dèslors

qu'elle a abouti à la conclusion que les questions qui lui sont poséessont
pertinentes, qu'elles ont un effet pratique à l'heure actuelle et que par
conséquentelles ne sont pas dépourvues d'objet oude but.

74. Compte tenu des considérations exposéesaux paragraphes 23 à73,la
Cour ne trouve aucune raison décisive,dans lescirconstances de l'espèce,de

refuser d'accéderà la requête pour avis consultatif émanantde l'Assemblée
générale.

75. Ayant établiqu'elleest saisied'une requêtepour avis consultatif pour
laquelle elle est compétente et qu'illui incombe d'y donner suite, la Cour
aborde maintenant l'examen desdeux questionsqui lui ont été adresséeasux
termes de la résolution3292 (XXIX) de l'Assembléegénérale.11ressort de

leur libelléqu'il n'y a lieu de répondre à la seconde que si la première est
tranchéepar la négative:

« 1. Le Sahara occidental (Rio de Oro et Sakiet El Hamra) était-il,au
moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne, un territoire sans maître
(terranullius)?

Si la réponseàla première question est négative,
II. Quels étaientlesliensjuridiques de ce territoire avec le Royaumedu
Maroc et l'ensemble mauritanien? ))

On a fait valoir que les deux questions sont en substance si intimement liées
qu'ilserait ditficilede répondre par l'affirmativeàla premièresans examiner
aussi la réponse à donner à la seconde. Il se peut néanmoins que, dans les

circonstances concrètes de l'espèce,la premièrequestion appelleune réponse
négativeindépendarn.mentdesconclusionsauxquellesla Cour parviendra au WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORY OPINION) 37

considering the object of the questions in accordance with the text of

resolution 3292 (XXIX), cannot fail to note this statement. As to the future
action of the General Assembly, various possibilities exist, for instance with
regard to consultations between the interested States, and theprocedures and
guarantees required for ensuring a free and genuine expression of the will of
the people. In general, an opinion given by the Court in the present
proceedings will furnish the General Assembly with elements of a legal

character relevant to its further treatment of the decolonization of Western
Sahara.
73. In any event, to what extent or degree its opinion will have an impact
on the action of the General Assembly is not for the Court to decide. The
function of the Court isto givean opinion based on law, once it has come to

the conclusion that the questions put to it are relevant and have a practical
and contemporary effect and, consequently, are not devoid of object or
purpose.

74. In the light of theconsiderations set out in paragraphs 23-73above, the
Court findsno compellingreason, in the circumstances of the present case,to
refuse to comply with the request by the General Assembly for an advisory

opinion.

75. Having established that it is seised of a request for advisory opinion
which itiscompetent to entertain and that itshould comply with that request,
the Court will now examine the two questions which have been referred to it
by General Assembly resolution 3292 (XXIX). These questions are so
formulated that an answerto the second iscalled for only if the answerto the
first is in the negative:

"1. WasWestern Sahara(Riode Oro and Sakiet El Hamra) atthetime of
colonization by Spain a territory belonging to no one (terranullius)?

If the answer to the first question is in the negative,

II. What were the legal ties between this territory and theKingdom of
Morocco and the Mauritanian entity?"

The suggestion has been made that the two questions are so far connected in
substance that an affirmative answer could scarcely be given to the first
question without also investigatingthe answer to be given to the second. It is
possible, however, that, in the actual circumstances of the case, a negative
answer to the first question may be called for irrespective of the Court's 38 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

sujet de la seconde. En conséquence la Cour examinera séparémentet
successivement lesdeux questions.
76. La requêtesitueexpressémentla question 1au moment de la colonisa-
tion du Sahara occidental (Rio de Oro et Sakiet El Hamra) par l'Espagne. De
mêmed ,u fait qu'ellesubordonne lasecondequestion àla réponsedonnéeàla

premièreet qu'ellela formule au passé,la requêtela rattache aussi indubita-
blement à la mêmepériode.Par conséquent,avant d'aborder l'examen des
questions, la Cour doit déterminerce qu'il faut entendre, aux finsdu présent
avis consultatif, par l«moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne ». Elle
souiigne à cet égardque son souci n'estpas de fixerune date critique au sens
que l'on donne à cette expression dans les litiges territoriaux; en effet, il

n'est pas demandé à la Cour de choisir entre des titres juridiques
opposés relativement au Sahara occidental. Il ne s'agit que d'identifier le
moment historique où la requête situelesquestions soumises à la Cour et les
réponsesàdonner àcesquestions.

77. Selon la Cour, aux fins du présent avis consultatif,«lmoment de la

colonisation par l'Espagne »peut êtreconsidérécommedésignantla période
commençant en 1884,année oùl'Espagne a proclamé son protectorat sur le
Rio de Oro. Certes l'Espagne a fait état de certains actes antérieurs par
lesquels elle aurait manifestésa souverainetéauxXVe et XVIe siècles.Elle a
précisécependant qu'elle l'avaitfait uniquement pour éclairerla Cour sur les
antécédents lointains de la présence espagnole sur la côte de l'Afrique

occidentale, et non pas pour établirune continuitéquelconqueentre cesactes
et le moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne, qui, a-t-elle reconnu, devait
êtrecorisidérécommeayantcommencéen 1884.Detoute manière,d'aprèsles
éléments dont elledispose,la Cour estparvenue àlaconviction que la période
commençant en 1884 représente le «moment de la colonisation par l'Es-
pagne » du Sahara occidental au sens de la requêteet constitue le contexte

temporel dans lequel lesdeux questions se situent suivant les termes de la
requête.
78. La Cour est donc seulement priéede donner un avis sur le statut
juridique et lesliensjuridiques du Sahara occidental tels qu'ilsexistaient dans
la périodecommençant en 1884, mais il n'en résultepas que les données
concernant ce statut ou ces liens à d'autres moments soient entièrement

dépourvuesde pertinence aux fins de l'avis consultatif. Cela signifie néan-
moins que ces donnéesne présententd'intérêq tue dans la mesure où elles
contribuent àpréciserquelsétaientlestatut juridique et lesliensjuridiques du
Sahara occidental pendant cette période.

79. En ce qui concerne la question 1,la Cour note que la requêtesitue
expressémentcette question au «moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne »;
il paraît donc clair que les termes «le Sahara occidental ...était-i..un
territoire sans maître (terra nullius)?» doivent êtreinterprétéseu égardau WESTERNSAHARA'(ADVISORYOPINION) 38

conclusions regarding the answer to be given to the second. Accordingly,the
two questions will be taken up separately and in turn.

76. The request, by its expressterms, relates Question 1specifically to the
time of colonization of Western Sahara(Riode Oro and Sakiet El Hamra) by
Spain. Similarly,by making thesecond question conditional upon theanswer
to the first and by formulating it in the past tense, the request also
unmistakably relates the second question to that same period. Consequently,
before embarking on its examination of the questions, the Court has to
determine what, for the purposes of the present Opinion, should be

considered "the time of colonization by Spain". In this connection, it
emphasizes that it is not here concerned to establish a "critical date" in the
sensegiven to this term in territorial disputes; for thequestions do not ask the
Court to adjudicate between conflicting legal titles to Western Sahara. It is
here concerned only to identify the period of the historical context in which
the request places the questions referred to the Court and the answers to be

given to those questions.
77. In the view ofthe Court, for the purposes of the present Opinion, "the
time of colonization by Spain" may be considered as the period beginning in
1884,when Spain proclaimed a protectorate over the Rio de Oro. It is true
that Spain has mentioned certain earlier acts of alleged display of Spanish
sovereignty in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. But it has explained that

it did so only to enlighten the Court as to the remote antecedents of the
Spanish presenceon the west-African Coast,and not to prove any continuity
between those acts and "the time of colonization by Spain", which it
conceded should be regarded as beginning in 1884. In any event, the
information before the Court convinces it that the period beginning in 1884
represents "the time of colonization by Spain" of Western Sahara within the

meaning of the request and constitutes thetemporal context within which the
two questions are placed by the terms of the request.

78. Although the Court has thus been asked to render an opinion solely
upon the legal status and legal ties of Western Sahara as these existed at the

period beginning in 1884,this does not mean that any information regarding
its legal status or legal ties at other timeswholly without relevance for the
purposes of this Opinion. It does, however, mean that such information has
present relevance only in so far as it may throw light on the questions as to
what werethe legal status and the legal ties of Western Sahara at that period.

79. Turning to Question 1,the Court observes that the request specifically
locatesthequestion in thecontext of "the time of colonization by Spain", and
it therefore seems clear that the words "Was Western Sahara ... a territory

belonging to no one (terranullius)?"haveto be interpreted by reference to the 39 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

droit en vigueur à l'époque. L'expression terra nullius était un terme de
technique juridique employé à propos de I'occupation en tant que l'un des
modesjuridiques reconnus d'acquisition de la souverainetésur un territoire.
L'occupation étanten droit un moyen originaire d'acquérir pacifiquementla
souveraineté sur un territoire, autrement que par voie de cession ou de

succession, l'une des conditions essentielles d'une occupation valable était
que leterritoire considéré fûtune terra nulliu- un territoire sansmaître-
au moment de l'acte qui était censé constituer l'occupation (voir Statut
juridique du Groënland oriental,C.P.J.1.sérieA/B no 53,p. 44 et 45, p. 63 et
64). Par conséquent,de l'avisde la Cour, onne peut déterminerque leSahara
occidental était terra nulliusau moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne
qu'en établissantqu'à cette époque le territoire n'appartenait àpersonne, en

ce sens qu'il pouvait êtreacquis par le procédéjuridiquede l'occupation.
80. Quelles qu'aient pu êtrelesdivergencesd'opinions entre lesjuristes, il
ressort de la pratique étatique de la période considéréeque les territoires
habités pas des tribus ou des peuples ayant une organisation sociale et
politique n'étaient pas considérés comme terra nullius.On estimait plutôt en
généraq l ue lasouverainetéàleurégard nepouvait s'acquérir unilatéralement
par I'occupation de la terranulliusentant quetitre originaire, mais au moyen

d'accords conclus avec des chefs locaux. Il est vrai que le terme occupation
était parfois employédans un sens non technique, comme désignant sim-
plement I'acquisition de la souveraineté;cela ne signifiaitcependant pas que
I'acquisition de la souverainetépar voie d'accords conclus avec lesautorités
du pays était considérée comme I'occupation d'uneterra nullius au sens
propre de ces termes. Au contraire, on voyait dans ces accords avec leschefs

locaux, interprétésou non comme opérantune cession effectivedu territoire,
un mode d'acquisition dérivé et non pas des titres originaires acquis pqr
l'occupation d'une terra nullius.
81. En l'espèce,il ressort des élémentsfournisà la Cour qu'au moment de
lacolonisation leSahara occidental étaithabitépardespopulations qui,bien
que nomades, étaient socialement et politiquement organisées en tribus et
placéessous l'autoritéde chefs compétentspour les représenter.Il en ressort

aussique, encolonisant le Sahara occidental, l'Espagne n'apas agicomme un
Etat qui établirait sa souveraineté sur uneerra nullius.Dans l'ordonnance
royale du 26 décembre 1884, loin de considérer qu'elle occupait une terra
nullius,l'Espagne a proclamé que le Roi prenait le Rio de Oro «sous sa
protection » sur la base d'accords conclus avec les chefs des tribus locales;
l'ordonnance se référait expressément aux « documents que les tribus indé-
pendantes de cette partie de la côteavaient «signésdevant le représentant

de la Société espagnoledes Africanistes » et annonçait que le Roi avait
confirmé « les actes d'adhésion» à l'Espagne. Dans ses négociations avec la
France au sujet des limites du territoire espagnol au nord du Rio de Oro,
c'est-à-dire dans la régionde laakiet El Hamra, l'Espagne n'a pas non plus
prétendu avoir acquis la souverainetésur une terra nullius.
82. Des vues divergentes ont été expriméed sevant la Cour au sujet de la

nature et de la valeurjuridique des accords conclus entre un Etat et deschefs WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 39

law in force at that period. The expression "terranullius"was a legal term of
art employed in connection with "occupation" as one of the accepted legal

methods of acquiring sovereigntyover territory. "Occupation" being legally
an original means of peaceablyacquiring sovereigntyoverterritory otherwise
than by cession or succession, it was a cardinal condition of a valid
"occupation" that the territory should be terra nullius- a territory belonging
to no-one - at the time of the act alleged to constitutethe "occupation" (cf.
Legal Status ofEastern Greenland, P.C.I.J.,Series A/B, No. 53,pp. 44 f.and

63 f.). In the view of the Court, therefore, a determination that Western
Sahara was a "terra nu1lius"atthe time of colonization by Spain would be
possible only if it were established that at that time the territory belonged to
no-one in the sense that it was then open to acquisition through the legal
process of "occupation".
80. Whatever differences of opinion there may have been among jurists,
the State practice of the relevant period indicates that territories inhabited by

tribes or peoples having a social and political organization werenot regarded
as teirae nullius.It shows that in the case of such territories the acquisition
of sovereignty was not generally considered as effected unilaterally through
"occupation" of terra nullius by original title but through agreements
concluded with local rulers. On occasion, it is true, the word "occupation"
was used in a non-technical sensedenoting simplyacquisition of sovereignty;

but that did not signify that the acquisition of sovereignty through such
agreements with authorities of the country was regarded as an "occupation"
of a "terranullius9'inthe proper sense of these terms. On the contrary, such
agreements with localrulers,whether or not considered as an actual "cession"
of the territory, were regarded as derivative roots of title, and not original
titles obtained by occupation of terrae nullius.

81. In the present instance, the information furnished to the Court shows
that at the time of colonization Western Sahara was inhabited by peoples
which, ifnomadic, weresocially and politicallyorganized in tribes and under
chiefscompetent to represent them. It alsoshows that, in colonizing Western
Sahara,' Spain did not proceed on the basis that it was establishing its
sovereigntyover terrae nullius.In its Royal Order of 26 December 1884,far

from treating the case as one of occupation of terra nullius,Spain proclaimed
that the King was taking the Rio de Oro under his protection on the basis of
agreements which had been entered into with the chiefs of the local tribes:the
Order referred expressly to "the documents which the independent tribes of
this part of the coast" had "signed with the representative of the Sociedad
Espafiola de Africanistas", and announced that the King had confirmed

"the deeds of adherence" to Spain. Likewise, in negotiating with France
concerning the limits of Spanish territory to the north of the Rio de Oro, that
is, in theSakiet El Hamra area, Spain did not rely upon any claim to the
acquisition of sovereignty over a terra nullius.
82. Beforethe Court, differing viewswereexpressed concerning the nature
and legal value of agreements between a State and local chiefs. But the Court40 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

locaux. Mais la Cour n'estpas invitée,par la question 1,àseprononcer sur le
caractère juridique ou la légalitédes titres auxquels l'Espagne doit d'être

devenue Puissance administrante au Sahara occidental. Elle est simplement
priéede dire si, au moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne, le Sahara
occidental (Rio de Oro et Sakiet El Hamra) était ((un territoire sans maître
(terra nuIlius)». La Cour est parvenue à la conviction que, pour les motifs
exposésci-dessus,elle doit répondre à cette question par la négative. Ellene
juge donc pas nécessaire de se prononcer d'abord sur l'exactitude ou

l'inexactitude de la thèsedu Maroc suivant laquelle le territoire n'étaitpas
terra nullius à l'époquedu fait que, selon lui, lestribus locales étaientalors
sous la souverainetédu sultan du Maroc; ni de statuer sur la thèsecorres-
pondante de la Mauritanie selon laquelle leterritoire n'étaitpas terra nullius
parce que, d'après elle, les tribus locales faisaient alors partie du Bilad
Chinguiti ou ensemble mauritanien. Quelles que soient les conclusions

auxquelles la Cour pourrait parvenir au sujet de ces deux thèses, ellesne
sauraient modifier le caractère négatif de la réponse que, pour d'autres
raisons déjàexposées, elleestimedevoir donner à la question 1.
83. La Cour donne donc à la question 1une réponse négativeet, con-
formémentauxtermes de la requête, elle abordera l'examende la question II.

84. Par la question II, la Cour est priéede dire ((quels étaientles liens
juridiques de ce territoire - le Sahara occidental - «avec le Royaume du
Maroc et l'ensemble mauritanien ». La portéede cette question dépenddu
sens que I'on attribuait aux termes ((liens juridiques » au moment de la

colonisation du territoire par l'Espagne. Or, contrairement à l'expression
terranulliusqui figuredans la question 1,cestermes n'ont paspar eux-mêmes
un senstrèsprécis.Il faut donc, de l'avisde laCour,plutôt rechercher lesens
de l'expression liensjuridiques» utiliséedans la question IIpar rapport à
l'objet etau but de la résolution3292 (XXIX) de l'Assembléegénérale,par
laquelle celle-ci a décidéde demander le présentavis consultatif à la Cour.

85. SiI'on analyse la résolution,on constate, comme la Cour l'a déjà fait
observer, que lesdeux questions contenues dans la requêteont été poséesà la
Cour dans le cadre des travaux de l'Assembléegénéraleportant sur la
décolonisation du Sahara occidental en conformité avec la résolution1514
(XV) du 14décembre1960.Selon la résolution3292 (XXIX) une ucontro-
verse juridique » a surgi au cours des débats au sujet du statut du Sahara

occidental au moment de sa colonisation par l'Espagne; il ressort en outre
clairement des comptes rendus de séancesque cette controverse juridique
portait sur des prétentionsémisesd'un côtépar le Maroc, qui soutenait qu'à
l'époquece territoire faisait partie de I'Etat chérifien,et, de l'autre, par la
Mauritanie, qui affirmait qu'il faisait partie du Bilad Chinguiti ou ensemble
mauritanien. Il sembledonc-à la Cour qu'il y a lieu d'interpréter,à la ques-

tion II, lesmots« liensjuridiques de ceterritoire avec le Royaume du Maroc WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISOR YPINION) 40

is not asked by Question 1 to pronounce upon the legal character or the
legality of the titles which ledto Spain becoming the administering Power of

Western Sahara. It isasked only to state whether Western Sahara (Rio de Oro
and Sakiet El Hamra) at the time of colonization by Spain was "a territory
belonging to no one (terra nullius)".As to this question, the Court issatisfied
that, for the reasons which it has given, its answer must be in the negative.
Accordingly, the Court does not find it necessary firstto pronounce upon the

correctness or otherwise of Morocco's view that the territory was not terra
nulliusat that time because the local tribes, soit maintains, werethen subject
to the sovereignty of the Sultan of Morocco; nor upon Mauritania's
corresponding proposition that theterritory wasnot terranulliusbecause the
local tribes, in its view, then formed part of the "Bilad Shinguitti" or
Mauritanian entity. Anyconclusions that the Court may reach with respect to

either ofthese points of view cannot change the negative character of the
answer which, for other reasons already set out, it has found that it must give
to Question 1.

83. The Court's answer to Question 1is, therefore, in the negative and, in
accordance with the terms of the request, it will now turn to QuestionI.

84. Question II asks the Court to state "what were the legal ties between

thisterritory"- that is,Western Sahara- "and the Kingdom of Morocco and
the Mauritanian entity". The scope of this question depends upon the
meaning tobe attached to the expression "legal ties" in thecontext of thetime
of thecolonization of the territory by Spain. That expression, however,unlike
"terranullius"in Question 1,was not a term having in itself a very precise
meaning.Accordingly, inthe view ofthe Court, themeaning of theexpression

"legal ties" inQuestion IIhas to be found rather in the object and purpose of
General Assembly resolution 3292 (XXIX), by which it was decided to
request the present advisory opinion of the Court.
85. Analysis of this resolution, asthe Court has already pointed out, shows
that the two questions contained in the request have been put to the Court in

the context of proceedings in the General Assembly directed to the
decolonization of Western Sahara in conformity with resolution 1514(XV)of
14 December 1960. During the discussion of this item, according to
resoiution 3292(XXIX), a legal controversy arose over the status of Western
Sahara at the time of its colonization by Spain; and the records of the
proceedingsmake it plain that the "legal controversy" in question concerned

pretensions put forward, on the onehand, by Morocco that the territory was
then a part of the Sherifian State and, on the other, by Mauritania that the
territory then formed part of the Bilad Shinguitti or Mauritanian entity.
Accordingly, it appears to the Court that in QuestionIIthe words "legal ties
between this territory and the Kingdom of Morocco and the Mauritanian 41 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

et l'ensemble mauritanien » comme désignant les liensjuridiques qui pour-
raient influer sur la politiquesuivre pour la décolonisation du Sahara occi-

dental.A cet égard,la Cour ne saurait accepter l'opinion selon laquelle les
liens juridiques qu'envisageait l'Assembléegénéraleen rédigeant la ques-
tionII ne concernaient que des liens établis directement avec le territoire,
indépendamment des êtres humains qui pouvaient s'y trouver. Une telle in-
terprétation restreindrait par trop la portée dela question, car des liensjuri-

diques existent normalement par rapport àdes personnes.
86. La Cour relève enoutre que, dans la mesure où la question II a pour
origine les thèses du Maroc et de la Mauritanie, c'est à ces deux Etats qu'il
appartient, enl'espèce,de laconvaincre qu'ilexistaitdesliensjuridiques entre
le Sahara occidental et le Royaume du Maroc ou l'ensemble mauritanien au
moment de la colonisation du territoire par l'Espagne.

87. LeSahara occidental (Riode Oro et Sakiet El Hamra) est un territoire
présentant des caractéristiques très particulières qui,à l'époquede sa colo-

nisation par l'Espagne, déterminaient pour une grande part le mode de vie
ainsi que l'organisation sociale et politique des populations qui l'habitaient.
On ne peut donc juger convenablement du régimejuridique du Sahara
occidental, y compris ses relations juridiques avec les territoires avoisinants,
sans tenir comptede cescaractéristiques particulières.Leterritoire fait partie
du grand désert saharien qui s'étend depuisla côte atlantique de l'Afrique

jusqu'à I'Egypte et au Soudan. Au moment où elle a été coloniséepar
l'Espagne, la partie de ce désertdont la Cour s'occupe était,en raison de la
faiblesse et de I'irrégularité des précipitations, presque exclusivementexploi-
téepar des nomades qui pratiquaient l'élevage ous'adonnaient àdescultures
où et quand lesconditions étaient favorables.On peut dire qu'au moment où
il a été colonisle territoire avait une population clairseméeet composéeen

majeure partie de tribus nomades dont les membres traversaient le désert
suivant des parcours plus ou moins réguliersen fonction des saisons et des
puits ou des points d'eau dont ils pouvaient disposer. En général, a-t-on
indiqué à la Cour, les tribus jouissaient en commun du droit de pâture;
toutefois,certains terrains qui seprêtaientla culture étaientl'objët dedroits

privatifs plus accentués. Les points d'eau permanents étaient en principe
considéréscommela propriétédes tribus qui lesavaient aménagés,mais leur
utilisation était ouverteà tous sous réservede certains usages coutumiers
quant aux prioritéset aux quantitéspuisées. Enoutre, de nombreuses tribus
avaient leurs propres cimetières qui constituaient pour elles et pour leurs
alliésautant de points de ralliement. Autre caractéristique de la vie dans la

région, d'aprèsles données dont la Cour dispose, les conflits entre tribus
n'étaient pas rares.
88. Les parcours de nomadisation tenaient compte des divers points
d'attache des tribus. Mais ce qui importe en l'occurrence, c'est que la rareté
des ressources et l'irrégularides pluiesobligeaienttoutes lestribus nomades WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 41

entity" must be understood as referring to such "legal ties" as may affect the
policy to be followed in the decolonization of Western Sahara. In this
connection, the Court cannot accept the view that the legal ties the General

Assembly had in mind in framing Question II werelimited to ties established
directly with the territory and without reference to the people who may be
found in it. Such an interpretation would unduly restrict the scope of the
question, since legal ties are normally established in relation to people.

86. TheCourt further observes that, inasmuch as Question II had itsorigin
in the contentions of Morocco and Mauritania, it was for them to satisfy the
Court in the present proceedings that legal ties existed between Western
Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco or the Mauritanian entity at thetime of
the colonization of the territory by Spain.

87. Western Sahara(RiodeOro and Sakiet El Hamra) isa territory having
very special characteristics which, at the time of colonization by Spain,
largelydetermined the way of life and social and political organization of the

peoples inhabiting it. In consequence, the legal régimeof Western Sahara,
including its legal relations with neighbouring territories, cannot properly be
appreciated without reference to these special characteristics. The territory
formspart of the great Sahara desert whichextends from theAtlantic Coastof
Africa to Egypt and the Sudan. At the time of its colonization by Spain, the
area of this desert with which the Court is concerned was being exploited,

because of its low and spasmodic rainfall, almost exclusively by nomads,
pasturing their animals or growing crops as and where conditions were
favourable. It may be said that the territory, at the time of its colonization,
had a sparsepopulation that, for the most part, consisted of nomadic tribes
the members of which traversed the desert on more or less regular routes
dictated by the seasons and the wells or water-holes available to them. In

general,the Court wasinformed, the right of pasture wasenjoyed in common
by these tribes; some areas suitable for cultivation, on the other hand, were
subject to a greater degree to separate rights. Perennial water-holes were in
principle considered the property of the tribe which put them into
commission,though their use also was open to all, subject to certain customs

as to priorities and theamount of water taken. Similarly, many tribes were
said to have their recognized burial grounds, which constituted a rallying
point for themselvesand for allied tribes.Another feature of lifein the region,
according to the information before the Court, was that inter-tribal conflict
was not infrequent.

88. Thesevarious points of attraction of a tribe to particular localitieswere
reflected in its nomadic routes. But what is important for present purposes is
the fact that the sparsity of the resources and the spasmodiccharacter of the42. SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

à parcourir de vastes étenduesde désert.En conséquence leursparcours de
nomadisation n'étaientpas limitésau territoire du Sahara occidental; cer-
tains traversaient aussi des parties du Maroc méridional ou des régions

qui relèventaujourd'hui de la Mauritanie ou de l'Algérie,voire éventuelle-
ment d'autres pays. Toutes ces tribus étaient de religion musulmane et
l'ensembledu territoire setrouvait dans le Dar el Islam. Engénéral,l'autorité
dans latribu appartenaitau cheik,sous réservede l'assentiment de ladjemaa,
qui rassemblait les personnalitésles plus influentes et la vie de la tribu était
régiepar son propre droit coutumier et par le droit musulman. II n'étaitpas

rare qu'une tribueût avecune autre des liensde dépendanceou d'alliance qui
avaient un caractère essentiellement tribal et non territorial, des liens d'al-
légeanceou de vassalité.
89. C'estcompte tenu desparticularitésde ceterritoire etdecetteorganisa-
tion sociale et politique de la populationquela Cour estappeléeàexaminer la
question des liens juridiques du Sahara occidental avec le Royaume du

Maroc et l'ensemble mauritanien au moment de la colonisation par l'Es-
pagne. Ala finde la procédureorale, on leverra, leMaroc etla Mauritanie ont
adopté une position presque commune au sujet de la réponseque la Cour
devrait donner àla question II. Toutefois ilsdéfendentdes thèses différentes
et à certains égards opposéespour prouver l'existence des liens juridiques
qu'ils prétendent avoir eus avec le Sahara occidental au moment où il a été

colonisé par l'Espagne. La Cour examinera donc ces thèses l'une après
l'autre.

90. LeMaroc a présenté devant la Cour les« liensjuridiques »qui selon lui

l'unissaient au Sahara occidental au moment de la colonisation espagnole
comme desliensde souverainetéqui découleraientde sa possessionimmémo-
riale du territoire. II affirme que cette possession immémoriale sefonde non
sur un acte isoléd'occupation mais sur l'exercicepublic de la souveraineté,
ininterrompu et incontesté,durant des siècles.
91. A l'appui de sa thèse,le Maroc invoque une sériede faits remontant à

la conquêtede l'Afrique du Nord par les Arabes au VIIe siècleet dont la
plupart sont,pour des raisons compréhensibles,tirésd'ouvrages historiques.
Le caractère lointain, irrégulier etsouvent éphémère de nombre de ces faits
confère une certaine ambiguïté aux documents historiques en tant que
preuvesde la possessiondu territoire aujourd'hui encause. LeMaroc invoque
aussi, entre autres, la décisionrendue par la Cour permanente de Justice
internationale dans l'affaire du Statut juridique du Groënland oriental

(C.P.J.I.sérieA/B no53).Soulignant que, pendant longtemps, leMaroc a été
leseul Etatindépendant du nord-ouest de ['Afrique,ilfait valoir la contiguïté
géographiquedu Sahara occidental et du Maroc et lecaractèredésertiquedu
territoire. Eu égard à ces considérations, il soutient que les documents
historiques suffisentàétablirlaprétentiondu Maroc àun titrefondé «sur un
exercice continu d'autorité»(ibid., p. 45),d'aprèslesprincipes mêmesque la WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 42

rainfall compelled al1those nomadic tribes to traverse very wide areas of the
desert. In consequence,the nomadic routes of none of them wereconfined to

Western Sahara; somepassed also through areas of southern Morocco, or of
present-day Mauritania or Algeria, and some eventhrough further countries.
All the tribes were of the Islamic faith and the whole territory lay within the
Dar al-Islam. In general, authority in the tribe was vested in a sheikh,bject
to the assent of the "Juma'a", that is, of an assembly of its leading members,
and the tribe had its own customary law applicable in conjunction with the

Koranic law. Not infrequently one tribe had ties with another, either of
dependence or of alliance, which wereessentiallytribal rather than territorial,
ties of allegiance or vassalage.

89. It is in the context of such a territory and such a social and political
organization of the population that theCourt has to examine the question of

the "legal ties" between Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco and
the Mauritanian entity at thetime of colonization by Spain. Attheconclusion
of the oral proceedings, as will be seen, Morocco and Mauritania took up
what was almost a common position on the answer to be given by the Court
on Question II.Thecontentions on which they respectivelybasethe legal ties

which they claim to have had with Western Sahara at the time of its
colonization by Spain are, however, different and in some degree opposed.
The Court will,therefore, examine them separately.

90. Morocco's claim to "legal ties" with Western Sahara at the time of
colonization by Spain has been put to the Court as a claim to ties of
sovereignty on the ground of an alleged immemorial possession of the
territory. This immemorial possession, it maintains, was based not on an
isolated act of occupatian but on the public display of sovereignty,

unintermpted and uncontested, for centuries.
91. In support of this claim Morocco refers to a series of eventsstretching
back to the Arab conquest of North Africa in the seventh century A.D., the
evidence of which is,understandably,for the most part taken from historical
works. The far-flung, spasmodic and often transitory character of many of
these events renders the historical material somewhat equivocal as evidence

of possession of the territory now in question. Morocco, however, invokes
interalia the decision of the Permanent Court of International Justice in the
Legal Status of Eastern Greenlandcase (P.C.I.J.,Series A/B, No. 53).
Stressing that during a long period Morocco was the only independent State
which existed in the north-west of Africa, it points to the geographical

contiguity of Western Sahara to Morocco and the desert character of the
territory. In the light ofhese considerations, it maintains that the historical
material sufficesto establishMorocco's claim to atitlebased"upon continued
display of authority" (loc.cit.,p. 45) on the same principles as those applied43 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

Cour permanente a appliqués pour accepter la prétentiondu Danemark à la
possession de l'ensemble du Groënland.
92. La méthode que le Maroc utilise pour revendiquer des liens de

souveraineté avec le Sahara occidental soulève des difficultés.Comme la
Cour permanente l'a déclarédans l'affaire du Statut juridique du Groënland
oriental,une prétention de souveraineté fondée sur un exercice continu
d'autorité implique «deux élémentsdont l'existence, pour chacun, doit être
démontrée:l'intention et la volontéd'agir en qualitéde souverain,et quelque
manifestation ou exercice effectif de cette autorité (ibid.p.45 et 46). La

Cour permanente, ilest vrai, a reconnu que, dans lecas de revendications de
souveraineté sur des territoires situés dans des pays faiblement peuplésou
inhabités,il n'estpas toujours nécessaire d'exige« de nombreuses manifes-
tations d'un exercice de droits souverains(ibid., p. 46)en l'absencede toute
prétention concurrente. Mais, en l'espèce,le Sahara occidental,bien qu'assez
peu peuplé,étaitun territoire àtravers lequel des tribus organiséessur leplan

socialet politiquesedéplaçaient sans cesseet où des heurts armésentre elles
étaient fréquents. Dans la situation particulièreévoquéeaux paragraphes 87
et88 ci-dessus,étant donnéla raretédes preuves quant àun exercice effectif
d'autoritéconcernant sans équivoqueleSahara occidental, il est difficilede
voir un exact parallèle entre la revendication du Maroc et celle que le
Danemark a formulée dans l'affaire du Statut juridique du Groënland

oriental.On ne peut pas remédier à cette difficultéen faisant appel à
l'argument de l'unitéou de la contiguïtégéographique.De fait,lesrenseigne-
ments dont la Cour dispose indiquent que l'unité géographique duSahara
occidental et du Maroc est assez contestable; cela aussi tend à faire écarter
toute application de la notion de contiguïté. Même si la contiguïté
géographique du Sahara occidental et du Maroc pouvait être prise en

considération en l'occurrence, il n'en serait que plus difficilede concilier la
rareté despreuves démontrant un exercicenon équivoqued'autoritéàl'égard
du Sahara occidental avec la thèsemarocaine dela possession immémoriale.
93. DeI'avisde laCour, cequidoitdéterminerde façon décisivesaréponse
à la question II, ce n'est pas ce que l'on peut indirectement déduire d'événe-
ments passés, cesont les preuves qui se rapportent directement àun exercice
effectif d'autorité au Sahara occidental au moment de la colonisation

espagnole et pendant la période qui l'a immédiatement précédée (voir
Minquierset Ecréhousa , rrêC,.I.JRecueil1953,p. 57).Le Maroc a fait aussi
valoir des moyens de preuve se rapportant spécifiquement à l'époquede la
colonisation et à la période qui l'a précédéel;a Cour va maintenant les
examiner.

94. Le Maroc demande à la Cour de tenir compte de la structure par-
ticulièredeI'Etat chérifienen examinant lesmoyens de preuve. Del'avisde la
Cour, aucune règlede droit international n'exigeque 1'Etatait une structure
déterminée,commeleprouvela diversitédesstructuresétatiquesquiexistent WESTER NAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 43

by the Permanent Court in upholding Denmark's claim to possession of the
whole of Greenland.
92. This method of formulating Morocco's claims to ties of sovereignty

with Western Sahara encounters certain difficulties.As the Permanent Court
stated in thecaseconcerningthe Legal Status of Eastern Greenland, a claim
to sovereignty based upon continued display of authority involves "two
elements each of which must be shown to exist:the intention and willto act as
sovereign, and some actual exercise or display of such authority" (ibid.,

pp. 45 f). True, the Permanent Court recognized that in thecase of claims to
sovereignty over areas in thinly populated or unsettled countries, "very little
in the way of âctual exercise of sovereign rights" (ibid., p. 46) might be
sufficient in the absence of a competing claim. But, in the present instance,
Western Sahara, ifsomewhat sparselypopulated, wasaterritory across which
socially and politically organized tribes were in constant movement and

where armed incidents between these tribes were frequent. In the particular
circumstances outlined in paragraphs 87 and 88 above, the paucity of
evidence of actual display of authority unambiguously relating to Western
Sahara renders it difficultto consider theMoroccan claim ason al1fours with
that of Denmark in the Eastern Greenlaildcase. Nor isthe difficultycured by
introducing the argument of geographical unity or contiguity. In fact, the

information before the Court shows that the geographical unity of Western
Sahara with Morocco is somewhat debatable, which also militates against
givingeffectto the concept of contiguity. Even if the geographical contiguity
of Western Sahara with Morocco could be taken into account in the present
connection, it would only make the paucity of evidence of unambiguous

display of authority with respectto Western Saharamore difficultto reconcile
with Morocco's claimto immemorial possession.

93. In the viewof theCourt, however,whatmust be of decisiveimportance

in determining its answer to Question II isnot indirect inferenceswn from
events in past history but evidence directly relating to effectiveisplay of
authority in Western Sahara at the timeof itscolonization by Spain and inthe
period immediately preceding that time (cf. Minquiers and Ecrehos,
Judgment, I.C.J. Reports 1953,p. 57). AsMorocco has also adduced specific
evidence relating to the time of colonization and the period preceding it, the

Court will now consider that evidence.

94. Morocco requests that, in appreciatingthe evidence, the Court should
take account of the special structure of the Sherifian State. No rule of
internationallaw, in the view oftheCourt, requires the structure of a State to
follow any particular pattern, as is evident from the diversity of theforms of44 SAHARA OCCIDENTA (LVISCONSULTATIF)

actuellement dans le monde. La demande du Maroc est donc légitime. Plus
particulièrement, lorsqu'un Etat revendique la souverainetésurun territoire,
sa structure propre peu' être unélémentà prendre en considération pour

juger de la réalitédes manifestations d'activitéétatiqueinvoquéescomme
preuves de cette souveraineté.
95. Qu'au moment de la colonisation du Sahara occidental par l'Espagne
I'Etat chérifienait eu un caractère particulier, cela est certain. Cette par-
ticularitétenaitacequ'ilétaitfondésurlelienreligieuxdel'Islamqui unissait
les populations et sur l'allégeancede diverses tribus au Sultan, par l'inter-

médiairede leurscaïds ou de leurs cheiks, plus quesurla notion de territoire.
Or,des liens religieuxcommuns ont évidemmentexistédans bien des régions
du monde sans que cela implique un lien juridique de souverainejéou de
subordination à un souverain. Comme le Maroc l'a fait observer lui-même
dans son exposéoral,leDar elIslam, luiaussi,groupe aujourd'hui etgroupait
à l'époqueconsidéréedes Etats distincts unis par le lien de la religion

musulmane. D'autre part lesliens politiques d'allégeance à un souverain ont
souvent étéun élément essentied le latexture de1'Etat.Mais cette allégeance
doit incontestablement êtreeffective et se manifester par des actes té-
moignant de l'acceptation de l'autorité politiquedu souverain, pour pouvoir
êtreconsidérée commeun signede sa souveraineté.Autrementil n'ya pas de

manifestation ou d'exerciceauthentique de l'autorité étatique.l s'ensuitque
le caractère particulier de 1'Etat marocain et les formes particulières sous
lesquelles sa souverainetéa pu en conséquence se manifester ne dispensent
par la Cour d'examiner si, au moment pertinent, la souverainetémarocaine
s'exerçait ou se manifestait effectivement au Sahara occidental.
96. On a affirmédevant la Cour, et il n'a pas été contestéq,ue durant la

période considérée I'Etat marocain se composait pour une part de ce qu'on
appelait le bled makhzen, c'est-à-dire les régionsvéritablementsoumises au
Sultan, et pour une autre part de ce que l'on appelait lebled siba, c'est-à-dire
lesrégionsou en fait lestribus n'obéissaientpas au Sultan. Selon leMaroc, les
deux expressions, bled makhzen et bled siba, indiquaient simplement deux
modalitésde rapports entre les autorités locales marocaines et le pouvoir

central et non pas une séparation territoriale, et l'existencede ces différents
types de rapports n'affectait pas l'unitédu Maroc. En raison d'un fonds
culturel commun, l'autorité spirituelle du Sultan était toujours acceptée.
Ainsi, d'aprèsle Maroc, la distinction entre le bled makhzen et le bled siba
traduisait une volontéde contester non pas l'existence du pouvoir central

mais plutôt les conditions d'exercice de ce pouvoir; le bled siba était,en
pratique, un moyen de décentralisation administrative. A l'encontre de cette
opinion, on soutient que ce qui caractérisait le bled siba, c'étaitle fait de ne
pas êtreadministrépar lemakhzen; il n'envoyait pas de contingent àl'armée
chérifienne; lemakhzen n'y percevait pas d'impôt; le gouvernement de la
population étaitaux mains de caïds nomméspar les tribus, dont l'autorité

découlait plus de leur acceptation par les tribus que d'une délégationde
pouvoir émanantdu Sultan; mêmesi ces pouvoirs locaux ne rejetaient pas
totalement leur appartenance à 1'Etat chérifien,dans la réalité,ils étaient WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 44

State found in the world today. Morocco's requestistherefore justified. Atthe
same time, where sovereignty over territory is claimed, the particular

structure of a State may be a relevant element in appreciating the reality or
otherwise of a display of State activity adduced as evidence of that
sovereignty.
95. That the Sherifian State at the time of the Spanish colonization of
Western Sahara was a State of a special character is certain. Its special
character consisted in the fact that it was founded on the common religious

bond of Islam existing among the peoples and on the allegiance of various
tribes to the Sultan, through their caids or sheikhs, rather than on the notion
of territory. Common religiouslinks have, of course,existed in many parts of
the world without signifying a legal tie of sovereignty or subordination toa
ruler. Even the Dar al-Islam, as Morocco itself pointed out in its oral

statement, knows and then knew separate Stateswithin the common religious
bond of Islam. Political ties of allegiance to a ruler, on the other hand, have
frequently formed a major element in the composition of a State. Such an
allegiance, however, if it is to afford indications of the ruler's sovereignty,
must clearly be real and manifested in acts evidencing acceptance of his
political authority. Otherwise,there willbe no genuine display or exercise of

State authority. lt follows that the special character of the Moroccan State
and the special forms in which its exercise of sovereignty may, in
consequence, have expressed itself, do not dispense the Court from
appreciating whether at the relevant time Moroccan sovereignty was
effectivelyexercised or displayed in Western Sahara.

96. It has been stated before the Court, and not disputed in the course of
the proceedings, that at the relevant period the Moroccan State consisted
partly of what was called the Bled Makhzen, areas actually subject to the
Sultan, and partly of what was called the Bled Siba, areas in which de facto
the tribes were not submissive to the Sultan. Morocco states that the two

expressions, Bled Makhzen and Bled Siba,.merely described two types of
relationship between the Moroccan local authorities and the central power,
not a territorial separation; and that the existence ofse different types did
not affect the unity of Morocco. Becauseof a common cultural heritage,the
spiritual authority of the Sultan was always accepted. Thus the difference
between the Bled Makhzen and the Bled Siba, Morocco maintains, did not

reflect a wish to challenge the existence of the central power so much as the
conditionsfor the exercise of that power; and the Bled Siba was, in practice,
a way of affecting an administrative decentralization of authority. Against
this view it is stated that what characterized the Bled Siba was that it was
not administered by the Makhzen; it did not contribute contingents to

the' Sherifian army; no taxes were collected there by the Makhzen; the
government of the people was in the hands of caids appointed by the tribes,
and their powers were derived more from the acquiescence of the tribes than
from any delegation of authority by the Sultan; even ifthese local powers did
not totally reject any connection with the Sherifian State, in reality they45 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

devenus des pouvoirs indépendants defacto. On fait valoir en outre que les
témoignages historiques montrent que le territoire situé entre le Sous et le
Draa étaitdans un étatd'insoumission permanent et faisait partie du bled
siba; cela impliquerait qu'il n'y avait pas d'exercice effectifet continu des

fonctions étatiques mêmedans ces régions situées aunord du Sahara
occidental. Dans la présente affaire,l'Espagne,le Maroc et la Mauritanie se
sont accordésà reconnaître que le bled siba était considéré comme faisant
partie de 1'Etat marocain à l'époque, et c'estaussi ce qui ressort des
renseignements dont la Cour dispose.
97. Que les régions situéesjusteau nord du Sahara occidental aient été

comprises dans le bled siba durant la période pertinente, ce point ne semble
pas contesté.C'est donc un élémentque l'on doit prendre en considération
pour apprécierlesdonnées quiont été présentée au sujet de l'autoritéque le
Maroc aurait manifestéeau Sahara occidental même.

98. Comme preuve de l'exercicede sa souveraineté au Sahara occidental,
le Maroc a invoqué des actes par lesquels, selon lui, il aurait manifesté son
autorité sur le plan interne, ainsi que certains actes internationaux qui
constitueraient la reconnaissance par d'autres Etats de la souveraineté
marocaine sur tout ou partie du territoire.

99. Pour montrer qu'il exerçait une autorité sur le plan interne, le Maroc
invoque principalement des élémentsprouvant l'allégeancede caïds saha-
riensenvers leSultan, ycomprisdes dahirs et autres documents concernant la
nominationde caïds,laperception d'impôts coraniques et autres,ainsique ce
que l'on a dénommé des«décisions militaires » constituant, selon lui, des
actes de résistanceà la pénétration étrangèrseur le territoire. Il fait valoir en

particulier que la confédérationdes tribus Tekna, ainsi que leurs alliés,
prêtaient allégeance au Sultan; une partie de ces tribus était établiedans la
régiondu Noun et une autre nomadisait le long d'un parcours qui traversait
des régionsdu Sahara occidental: c'est,dit le Maroc, par l'entremisede caïds
Tekna que le Sultan exerçait son autoritéet son influence sur les tribus qui
nomadisaient dans le Sahara occidental. Par ailleurs, après que le marabout

Ma el Aïnin se fut établià Smara dans la Sakiet El Hamra vers la fin des
années1890,une grande partie du territoire est passée, selonle Maroc, sous
l'autorité directede ce cheik, lequel aurait étéle représentant personnel du
Sultan. LeMaroc met égalementl'accentsur deuxexpéditionsentreprisespar
le sultan Hassan Ieren personne dans la région méridionale du Sous,en 1882
et 1886,pour maintenir etraffermirson autoritédans la partie méridionalede

ses domaines, ainsi que sur l'envoi d'armes par le Sultan a Ma el Aïnin et a
d'autres dans lesud pour renforcer leur résistanceàla pénétration étrangère.
En générall,e Maroc soutient que le Sahara occidental lui estdepuis toujours
rattachépar des lienscommuns d'ordre ethnique, culturel et religieux,et que
la Sakiet El Hamra a été artificiellementséparée du territoire marocain du
Noun par la colonisation.46 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

100. De son côté, l'Espagne fait valoir l'absence frappante de tout docu-
ment ou de tout autre indicequi prouve la manifestation par le Maroc d'une
autoritépolitique sur le Sahara occidental. Elle soutient en effetque lesactes
de nomination de caïdsproduits par le Maroc - qu'il s'aggissede dahirsou de

correspondance officielle - concernent non pas le Sahara occidental mais
des régions situéedans la partie méridionale du Maroc tellesque le Noun et
le Draa; aucun document d'acceptation provenant des intéressésn'a d'ail-
leurs étéprésenté.En outre, selon l'Espagne, ces prétendues nominations
commecaïds étaient conférées à des cheiks déjàéluspar leurs propres tribus
et ne constituaient en fait que des titres honorifiques accordés à des chefs
locaux déjà en fonction et indépendants de facto. En ce qui concerne la
confédération desTekna, les deux parties qui la constituaient entretenaient
des rapports tout à fait différentsavecle Sultan; seuls lesTekna sédentaires,
établisdans leSudmarocain, reconnaissaientune allégeancepolitiqueenvers

le Sultan, alors que les fractions nomades de la tribu, qui parcouraient le
Sahara occidental, étaient des Tekna libres», autonomes et indépendants
du Sultan. L'Espagne affirme en outre que Ma el Aïnin n'a étéà aucun
moment le représentant personnel de l'autoritédu Sultan au Sahara occi-
dental et qu'au contraire il exerçait son autorité au sud du Draa en toute
indépendance; ses rapports avec le Sultan étaient fondés sur le respect
réciproque et sur l'intérêtu'ils avaient tous deux à résisterà l'expansion
françaiseausud; ils'agissaitde rapportsentre égauxetnonde lienspolitiques
d'allégeanceou de souveraineté.
101. L'Espagne invoque de surcroît I'absence de toute preuve relativeau

paiementd'impôts par lestribus du Sahara occidentaletnieque l'onpuisseen
fournir; selon elle, l'une des caractéristiques du bled siba était queles tribus
refusaient l'impôt et au Sahara occidental aucun impôt n'avait jamais été
verséau makhzen. En cequiconcerne lesexpéditionsdu Sultan de 1882et de
1886,lesdocumentshistoriquesmontrent, d'après l'Espagne, qu'ellesnesont
jamais parvenuesau Sahara occidentalnimêmeau Draa, n'ayant atteint que
le Sous et le Noun, et qu'elles n'ont d'ailleurs mêmepas réussià soumettre
totalement ces régions;elles ne sauraient donc constituer une preuve de
l'exercice d'une autorité au Sahara occidental. L'Espagne affirme qu'elles

avaient pour but d'empêcherles échangescommerciaux entre les Européens
et les tribus duous et du Noun, ce qui ne concernait nullement le Sahara
occidental. De mêmel'Espagne prétend que les actes survenus au Sahara
occidental etqui auraient étédesactesde résistanceàlapénétration étrangère
n'ont étérien de plus que des incursions sporadiques pour piller ou prendre
des otages à rançonner, et qu'ils n'avaient aucun lien avec l'exercice de
l'autorité marocaine. D'une manière générale, pour des raisons d'ordre
géographiquenota ent, l'Espagne met égalementendoute l'unité entre la
régiondu Sahara e les régionsdu Maroc méridional.
102. Dans la f esure où elle concerne les prétentions marocaines quant à

I'exercicepar leMaroc dela souverainetésurleSahara occidentalaumoment
de la colonisption, la thèse de la Mauritanie peut se résumer ainsi. La
Mauritanie fie s'oppose pas à l'affirmation selon laquelle le Maroc aurait WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 46

100. Spain, on the otherhand, maintainsthat there isa striking absence of
any documentary evidence or other traces of a display of political authority
by Morocco with respect to Western Sahara. Theactsof appointment of caids

produced by Morocco, whether dahirs or official correspondence, do not in
Spain's view relate to Western Sahara but to areas within southern
Morocco such as the Noun and the Dra'a; nor has any document of
acceptance by the recipientsbeen adduced. Furthermore, according to Spain,
these alleged appointments ascaid wereconferred on sheikhsalready elected
by their own tribes and were, in truth, only titles of honour bestowed on

existing and defacto independent local rulers. Asto the Tekna confederation,
its two parts aresaid to have been in quite different relations to the Sultan:
only thesettledTekna, established in southern Morocco, acknowledgedtheir
political allegiance to the Sultan, while the nomadic septs of the tribe who
traversed the Western Sahara were "free" Tekna, autonomous and

independent of the Sultan. Nor was Ma ul-'Aineen, according to Spain, at
any time the personal representative of the Sultan's authority in Western
Sahara; on thecontrary, heexercised hisauthority to the south of the Dra'a in
completeindependence of the Sultan; hisrelations with the Sultan werebased
on mutual respect and a common interest in resistingFrench expansion from
the south; they were relations of equality,not political ties of allegiance or of

sovereignty.

101. Further, Spain invokestheabsence of any evidence of thepayment of
taxes by tribes of Western Sahara and denies al1possibility of such evidence

being adduced; according to Spain, it was a characteristic even of the Bled
Siba that the tribes refused to be taxed, and in Western Sahara there was no
question of taxes having been paid to the Makhzen. As to the Sultan's
expeditions of 1882and 1886,these, according to Spain, are shown by the
historical evidence never to have reached Western Sahara or even the Dra'a,
but only the Souss and the Noun; nor did they succeed in completely

subjecting even those areas; and they cannot therefore constitute evidence of
display of authority with respect to Western Sahara. Their purpose, Spain
maintains, wasto prevent commerce between Europeans and thetribes of the
Souss and Noun, and this purpose was unrelated to Western Sahara. Again,
the alleged acts of resistance in Western Sahara to foreign penetration are
said by Spain to have been nothing more than occasional raids to obtain

booty or hostages for ransom and to have nothing to do with display of
Moroccan authority. In general, both on geographical and on other grounds,
Spain questions the unity of the Saharan region with the regions of southern
Morocco.

102. Mauritania's views,in sofar as they relate to Morocco's pretensions
to have exercised sovereignty over Western Sahara at the time of its
colonization, may be summarized as follows: Mauritania does not oppose
Morocco's claim to have displayed its authority in some, more northerly, 47 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

exercésonautoritésur certaines régionsdu territoire, vers lenord. C'estainsi
qu'ellene conteste pas l'allégeanceau Sultan de la confédérationdesTekna à
cette époquenila prétentiondu Maroc selon laquelle le Sultan exerçait, par

l'intermédiairede caïds Tekna du Maroc méridional,une certaine autorité
sur les Tekna nomades parcourant ces régionsdu Sahara occidental. La
Mauritanie ne reconnaît pas cependant l'allégeanceau Sultan des autres
tribus du Sahara occidental, estimant qu'elles appartenaient au Bilad
Chinguiti ou ensemble mauritanien. En particulier elle maintient, comme
l'Espagne, que les Regueibat étaientune tribu de marabouts-guerriers totale-

ment indépendante à la fois des caïds Tekna et du Sultan et qu'elle avait
plutôt des liensaveclestribus du Bilad Chinguiti. La Mauritanie ne reconnaît
pas non plus que Ma el Aïnin ait représenté l'autoritédu Sultan au Sahara
occidental. Elle souligne au contraire qu'il s'agissait d'une personnalité
chinguittienne qui avait acquis influence et renommée à la têted'une
confrériereligieusedans le Bilad Chinguiti et qui, vers la fin da sa vie,a joué

un rôle politique dans laSakiet El Hamra. Tout comme l'Espagne aussi, la
Mauritanie soutient que, en tant que personnage politique organisant et
dirigeant la résistanceà lapénétrationfrançaise, Ma el Aïnin traitait avec le
Sultan sur une base de coopération entre égauxet que leurs rapports étaient
des rapports non pas d'allégeance mais d'alliance, qui n'ont duré que

jusqu'au moment où Ma el Aïnin s'estproclamésultan.
103. LaCour neméconnaîtpaslasituation du sultan du Maroc entant que
chef religieux. Il ne lui semble pas cependant que les renseignements fournis
et lesarguments invoquéspar leMaroc éliminentl'essentieldesdifficultésque
soulève laprétentionmarocaine quant àl'exercice effectifde sa souveraineté
interne sur le Sahara occidental. Les éléments enla possession de la Cour

paraissent bien confirmer que presque tous lesdahirs et autres actes relatifs à
des caïds concernaient des régions situéesà l'intérieurde ce qui est au-
jourd'hui le Maroc et ne suffisentpas àdémontrerqu'une autoritémarocaine
sesoit effectivementmanifestéeauSahara occidental. Onne sauraitdirenon
plus que les renseignements fournis par le Maroc prouvent de manière

convaincante que celui-ciait perçu ou levédesimpôts dans leterritoire. En ce
qui concerne lecheik Ma elAïnin, lesmultiplesaspects desa carrière peuvent
susciterdesdoutes quant àla nature précisede sesrapports avec leSultan,qui
ont d'ailleursétédiversementinterprétéD s.ans l'ensemble,leséléments dont
la Cour disposenesuffisentpar pour laconvaincre que lesactivitésdececheik

soient à considérer comme une manifestation de l'autorité du Sultan au
Sahara occidental au moment de la colonisation.
104. En outre les renseignements dont la Cour dispose semblent bien
confirmer que les expéditionsdu sultan Hassan Ierdans le sud, en 1882 et
1886,visaient toutesdeux spécifiquement leSousetle Noun et qu'enfait elles
n'ont pasdépassé leNoun, desorteque,n'étant mêmp eas parvenues au Draa,

ellesont encoremoins pu atteindre leSahara occidental. Lesélémentsfournis
ne permettent pasnon plus àla Cour de considérercommedes actes de 1'Etat
marocain des actes survenus au Sahara occidental et qualifiés d'actesde
résistanceà la pénétration étrangère D.e mêmel'envoid'armes par le Sultan WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 47

areas oftheterritory. Thusitdoesnotdisputetheallegiance atthat timeofthe
Tekna confederation to the Sultan, nor Morocco's claim that, through the
intermediaryof Tekna caids in southern Morocco, it exerciseda measure of
authority over Tekna nomads who traversed those areas of Western Sahara.
Mauritania doesnot, however,admit theallegianceofothertribes inWestern
Saharato theSultan,as itconsidersthem tobelongto the BiladShinguitti,or

Mauritanian entity. In particular, likeSpain,itmaintains that the Regheibat
were a tribe of marabout warriors wholly independent of both the Tekna
caids and the Sultan, and that their links were rather with the tribes of the
Bilad Shinguitti.gain,Mauritania doesnot admit that themarabout sheikh,
Ma &'Aineen, represented the authority of the Sultan in Western Sahara.
Instead, it insiststhat hewasa Shinguittipersonality, whoacquiredinfluence
and renown as head of a religious brotherhood in the Bilad Shinguitti and
also became a political figure in theakiet El Hamra in the later stages of
his life. Like Spain also, Mauritania maintains that, as a political figure
organizingand leadingresistanceto Frenchpenetration, Maul-'Aineendealt
with the Sultan on a basis of CO-operationbetween equals; and that the
relation between them was not one of allegiancebut of an alliance,lasting
only until the timecame whenthe sheikhproclaimed himselfSultan.

103. TheCourt doesnot overlooktheposition oftheSultan of Moroccoas
a religious leader. In the view of the Court, however, the information and
arguments invoked by Morocco cannot, for the most part, be considered as
disposingofthedifficultiesinthewayofitsclaimto haveexercisedeffectively
interna1 sovereignty over Western Sahara. The material before the Court
appears to support the view that almost al1 the dahirs and other acts
concerning caids relate toareas situated within present-day Morocco itself
and do not in themselves provide evidenceof effectivedisplay of Moroccan
authority inWesternSahara. Nor can theinformation furnished by Morocco
be said to provide convincing evidence of the imposition or levying of
Moroccantaxes withrespectto theterritory. Asto SheikhMa ul-'Aineen,the
complexjties of his career may leave doubts as to the precise nature of his
relations with the Sultan, and different interpretations have been put upon
them. The material before the Court, taken as a whole, does not sufficeto
convince it that the activitiesof this sheikh should be considered as having

constituted adisplay of the Sultan's authority in WesternSaharaat the time
of itscolonization.
104. Furthermore, the information before the Court appears to confirm
that theexpeditionsofSultanHassan 1tothesouth in 1882 and 1886 bothhad
objectsspecificallydirectedto theSoussand the Noun and, infact,didnot go
beyond the Noun; sothat theydid not reach evenasfar asthe Dra'a,stillless
WesternSahara. Nor does the material furnished lead the Court to conclude
that the alleged acts of resistance in Western Sahara to foreign penetration
couldbeconsideredasacts ofthe Moroccan State.Similarly,thedespatch of
arms by the Sultan to Maul-'Aineenand othersto encouragetheirresistance48 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

à Ma el Aïnin et à d'autres pour les encourager à s'opposer à la pénétration
française à l'est du Sahara occidental peut de toute manière s'interpréter
autrement que comme une manifestation de l'autoritédu Sultan. De plus,

quoique le Maroc affirme que la tribu des Regueibat a toujours reconnu la
suzerainetéde la confédération desTekna, et par son intermédiaire celle du
Sultan lui-même,cette affirmation n'est corroborée par aucune preuve
convainc,ante. Qui plus est, l'Espagne et la Mauritanie soutiennent toutes
deux que cette tribu de marabouts-guerriers était totalement indépendante.
105. Par conséquenties renseignements dont la Cour dispose ne viennent

pas étayerla prétention du Marocselon laquelle il a exercéune souveraineté
territoriale sui leSahara occidental. Ilsneparaissentcependant pasexclurela
possiblitéqueleSultan ait manifestéuneautoritéàl'égardde certainestribus
du territoire. On ne pourrait sûrement pas le dire dei~e~ueibat ou d'autres
tribus indépendantes vivantsur leterritoire. Mais ilen va autrement pour les
fractions Tekna dont il est établi que les parcours de nomadisation tra-

versaient notamment leterritoire descaïds Tekna àl'intérieur du Maroc,ainsi
que certaines parties du Sahara occidental. Certes, le territoire des caïds
Tekna dans le Noun et le Draa faisait partie du bled siba pendant la période
considéréeet lasubordinationde ces caïds au Sultan était parfois incertaine.
Ilétaitnéanmoinsadmisque 1'Etatchérifiencomprenait leNoun et leDraa et

que lescaïds Tekna représentaientl'autoritédu Sultan. Sansdoute, etcelares-
sort des paragraphes précédents,l'allégeancedes fractions Tekna nomades
à la confédération desTekna a été contestée pendant la présente instance.
Mais, selon la Cour, lesimplefait que, dans leursdéplacements,ces fractions
Tekna séjournaient sur le territoire des caïds de la confédération desTekna
paraît venir étayerl'idée qu'ellesétaientsoumises, dans une certaine mesure

au moins, à l'autoritéde caïds Tekna. La Cour note en outre que, d'après la
Mauritanie, ces fractions Tekna étaientdans la mouvance marocaine.

106. De plus, les données dont la Cour dispose contiennent diverses
indicationsd'où il ressort que l'autoritédu Sultan seserait, dans une certaine
mesure, étendue à des tribus ou fractions Tekna nomadisant au Sahara

occidental. De telles indications se trouvent par exemple dans certaines
pièces relatives à la délivrance de marins naufragés ou d'autres étrangers
retenus captifs par des Tekna du Sahara occidental; dans des documents
attestant qu'à certaines occasions, et particulièrement lors des visites faites
par le Sultan dans le sud en 1882 et 1886, certaines tribus nomades sont

venues du Sahara occidental pour prêter allégeanceau Sultan;et enfin dans
des lettres ou le Sultan demandait à des caïds Tekna d'accomplir certains
actes au sud du Noun et du Draa. En conséquence, et tenant compte de
toutes indications contraires, laCour estimeque,considérésglobalement,les
renseignements dont elle dispose montrent que le Sultan a manifesté une
certaine autorité sur les fractions Tekna nomadisant au Sahara occidental,

par l'intermédiairede caïds Tekna. WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 48

to French penetration to the east of Western Sahara is, in any case, open to

other interpretations than the display of the Sultan's authority. Again,
although Morocco asserts that the Regheibat tribe always recognized the
suzerainty of the Tekna confederation, and through them that of the Sultan
himself, this assertion has not been supported by any convincing evidence.
Moreover, both Spain and Mauritania insist that this tribe of marabout
warriors was wholly independent.

105. Consequently, the information before the Court does not support
Morocco's claim to have exercised territorial sovereignty over Western
Sahara. On the other hand, it does not appear to exclude the possibility that
the Sultan displayed authority over some of the tribes in Western Sahara.
That this was so with regard to the Regheibat or other independent tribes

living in the territory could clearly not be sustained. Theposition isdifferent,
however, with regard to the septs of theTekna whose routes of migration are
established as having included the territory of the Tekna caids within
Morocco as well as parts of Western Sahara. Tme, the territory of the Tekna
caids inthe Noun and the Dra'a were BledSiba at the relevantperiod and the

subordination of the Tekna caids to the Sultan was sometimesuncertain. But
the fact remains that the Noun and theDra'a wererecognized to bepart of the
Sherifian State and the Tekna caids to represent the authority of the Sultan.
No doubt, as appears from previous paragraphs, the allegiance of the
nomadic septs of the Tekna to the Tekna confederation has been in dispute in
the present proceedings. The mere fact that those Tekna septs in their

nomadic journeys spent periods of timewithintheterritory of thecaids of the
Tekna confederation appears, however, to the Court to lend support to the
view that they were subject, at least in some measure, to the authority of
Tekna caids. The Court at the same time notes that Mauritania considers
these Tekna septs to have been in "Moroccan fealty".

106. Furthermore, the material before the Court contains various
indications of some projection of the Sultan's authority to certain Tekna
tribes or septs nomadizing in Western Sahara. Such indications are, for
example, to be found in certain documents relating to the recovery of
shipwrecked seamen and other foreigners held captive by Teknas in Western
Sahara; in documents showing that on some occasions,notably the Sultan's

visits to the south in 1882 and 1886, he received the allegiance of certain
nomadic tribes which came from Western Sahara for the purpose; and in
letters from the Sultan to Tekna caids requestingthe performance of certain
acts to the south of the Noun and the Dra'a. Accordingly, and after taking
dueaccount of any contradictory indications, the Court considersthat, taken
as a whole, the information before it shows the display of some authority by

the Sultan,through Tekna caids,overthe Tekna septsnomadizing in Western
Sahara.49 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

107. Ainsi,mêmecompte tenu de lastructure spécifiquede 1'Etatchérifien,
les élémentsexaminésjusqu'à présent n'établissent aucunlien de souverai-
netéterritorialeentre cet Etat et leSahara occidental. Ils ne montrent pas que

le Maroc ait exercé une activité étatiqueeffective et exclusive au Sahara
occidental. Ils indiquent cependant qu'un lienjuridique d'allégeanceexistait
pendant la période pertinente entre le Sultan et certaines, mais certaines
seulement, des populations nomades du territoire.

108. La Cour doit maintenant examiner si son analyse de la situation
juridique telle qu'elle ressort de l'étudedes actes internes invoqués par le
~aroc est sensiblement affectéepar les actes internationaux qui, d'aprèslui,

établiraientquela souverainetédu Sultan était directement ou indirectement
reconnue comme s'étendant au sud du Noun et du Draa. On peut, pour
faciliter l'étudedesélémentsainsi invoquésl,esranger sous quatre rubriques:

a) Une sériede traités concluspar le Maroc, en particulier un traitéconclu
avec l'Espagne en 1767 et des traités conclus en 1836, 1856 et 1861
respectivement avec les Etats-Unis d'Amérique,la Grande-Bretagne et
l'Espagne, quicontiennent desdispositionsau sujet de la délivranceetde

la protection desmarins faisant naufrage sur lescôtes de l'oued Noun ou
à proximité.
b) Un traitéanglo-marocain de 1895,aux termes duquel la Grande-Bretagne
aurait reconnu que « lesterritoires allant de l'oued Draa au cap Bojador
et appelésTarfaya, comme il est dit plus haut, età l'intérieu»,faisaient
partie du Maroc.

c) La correspondance diplomatique concernant l'application de l'article 8
du traitéde Tétouande 1860et un accord qui aurait été concluen 1900
avec l'Espagne relativement àla cession d'Ifni, lesquels attesteraient que
l'Espagne aurait reconnu quela souverainetémarocaine atteignait ausud
le cap Bojador. J

d) Un échangede lettres franco-allemand de 1911, où il était convenu que
«le Maroccompred toute la partie de l'Afriquedu Nord s'étendantentre
l'Algérie,l'Afrique occidentale française et la colonie espagnole duRio
de Oro B.

109. Les clauses conventionnelles qui sont citéespar le Maroc sont tout
d'abord l'article 18 du traité de Marrakech de 1767, dont l'interprétation
donne lieu à une controverse entre le Maroc et l'Espagne. Cet article
concernait l'établissement projeté d'un comptoir et d'une pêcherie des

habitants des Canaries sur ((les côtes d'oued Noun »,d'après le Maroc, et
(4au sud du fleuve Noun », d'aprèsl'Espagne, le point controversé étantla
portéedu passage de cet article où le Sultan décline toute responsabilité à
l'égardde ce projet. Le Maroc affirmeque, dans sa version arabe, l'article en
question a lesenssuivant: WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 49

107. Thus, even taking account of the specific structure of the Sherifian
State, the material so far examined does not establish any tie of territorial

sovereignty between Western Sahara and that State. It does not show that
Morocco displayed effectiveand exclusive State activity in Western Sahara.
It does however provide indicationsthata legaltie of allegiancehad existed at
the relevant period between the Sultan and some, but only some, of the
nomadic peoples of the territory.

108. The Court must now examine whether its appreciation of the legal

situation which appears from a study of theinterna1acts invoked by Morocco
isaffected to any extent by a consideration of theinternational acts said by it
to show that the Sultan's sovereignty was directly or indirectly recognizedas
extending to the south of the Noun and the Dra'a. Thematerial upon which it
relies may conveniently be considered under four heads:

(a) Aseriesof Moroccan treaties, and moreespecially a treaty with Spain of
1767,and treaties of 1836,1856and 1861with the United States, Great
Britain and Spain respectively, provisions of which deal with the rescue

and safety of mariners shipwrecked on the Coast of Wad Noun or its
vicinity.

(b) A Moroccan treaty with Great Britain of 1895in whichGreat Britain, it
is claimed, recognized "the lands that are between Wad Draa and Cape

Bojador, and which are called Terfaya above named, and al1the lands
behind it" as part of Morocco.
(c) Diplomatic correspondence concerning the implementation of Article 8
of the Treaty of Tetuan of 1860and an alleged agreement with Spain of
1900relating to the cession of Ifni, which are claimed to show Spanish

recognition of Moroccan sovereignty as far southwards as Cape
Bojador.
(d) A Franco-German exchange of letters of 1911 which expressed the
understanding of the parties that "Morocco comprises al1that part of
northern Africa which is situated between Algeria, French West Africa,
and the Spanish colony of Rio de Oro".

109. The treaty provisions cited by Morocco begin with Article 18of the
Treaty of Marrakesh of 1767, the interpretation of which is in dispute

between Morocco and Spain. ThisArticleconcerned a project of the Canary
Islanders to set up a trading and fishing post on "the coasts of Wad Noun",
according to Morocco, or "to the south of the River Noun", according to
Spain,and the dispute isasto thescope of the Sultan's disavowalin Article 18
of any responsibility with respect to such a project. Morocco states that in the

Arabic text the Article has the followingmeaning:50 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

Sa Majestéimpérialemet en garde leshabitants des Canaries contre
toute initiative d'aller pêcher sur les côtes d'ouedun et au-delà. Il

dégagetoute responsabilitéde ce qui leur arrivera de la part des Arabes
du pays auxquels il est difficiled'appliquer les décisions,eux qui n'ont
pas de résidencefixe,quisedéplacent commeilsveulentetplantent leurs
tentes ou ils l'entendent. Leshabitants des Canaries sont certains d'être
malmenéspar ces Arabes. »

Le Maroc soutient en outreque letexte arabe est la seul« version officielle»
et doit l'emporter comme étantplus restrictif. Se fondant sur le libelléarabe,
il affirme que l'article 18 signifie que le pouvoir de prendre des décisions
intéressantleshabitants d'« oued Noun et au-delà » étaitreconnu au Sultan,

malgré la difficultéde leur appliquer lesditesdécisions.

110. L'Espagne souligne cependant que le texte espagnol du traitéest lui
aussi un texte original faisant foi, et queson sens est le suivant:

«Sa Majesté impérialese réservede délibérersur le comptoir que
S. M. catholique veut fonder au sud du fleuve Noun, car elle ne peut
prendre la responsabilitédes accidents et des malheurs, sa domination
[sus dominioslne s'étendant pasjusque-la ..De Santa Cruz vers le nord,
S. M. impérialeaccorde aux Canariens et aux Espagnols la pêchesans y

autoriser aucune autre nation. »

L'Espagne conteste également le sens attribué par le Maroc aux mots
cmciaux figurant dans le texte arabe et soutient que le sens qui se dégagedu
texteespagnol est confirmépar des lettres de la mêmeépoque adresséespar le
Sultanau roi Charles III, ainsi que par d'autres documents diplomatiques et

par un traitéhispano-marocainde 1799.Ilconvient de noter en passant que le
Maroc conteste à son tour la signification donnée par l'Espagne à certains
termesfigurant dans lestextes arabes deslettres du Sultan etdu traitéde1767.
L'Espagne n'en soutient pas moins, sur la base de son interprétation des
divers textes, que l'article 18du traité de1767,loin d'indiquer que l'Espagne
reconnaissait la souveraineté du Sultan au sud de l'ouedoun, constitue un

désaveu,par leSultan lui-mêmed , etoute prétentionàune autoritédans cette
région.
111. LaCour necroit pasnécessairedetrancher la controverse concernant
la teneur de l'article 18 de ce traité ancien, attendu que plusieurs traités
ultérieurs,plus proches du moment de lacolonisation du Sahara occidental et
donc plus pertinents aux fins du présent examen, contiennent des clauses

analogues relativesaux naufragés sur lescôtes de l'oued Noun. La Cour s'en
tiendra donc aux observations qui suivent. Dans la mesure ou le Maroc
soutient que cette disposition ou toute autre disposition conventionnelle
atteste la reconnaissance internationale de la souveraineté marocaine de la
part d'un autre Etat, il serait difficile de considérer cette reconnaissance
internationale comme établie sur la seule base d'un texte marocain qui WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 50

"His Imperial Majesty warns the inhabitants of the Canaries against
any fishing expedition to the coasts of Wad Noun and beyond. He

disclaims any responsibility for thewaythey maybe treated by theArabs
of thecountry, to whom it is difficultto apply decisions,since they have
no fixed residence, travel as they wish and pitch their tents where they
choose. The inhabitants of the Canaries are certain to be maltreated by
those Arabs."

It contends, moreover, that this Arabic text is the only "official text" and
should have preference also as being the more limited interpretation. On the
basis of the Arabic text, it maintains that the Article signifiesthat the Sultan

was recognized to have the power to take decisions with respect to the
inhabitants of "Wad Noun and beyond", though it was difficultto apply his
decisions to them.
110. Spain, however, stressesthat the Spanish text of the treaty is also an
original text, which isequally authentic and has the following meaning:

"His Imperial Majesty refrains from expressing an opinion with
regard to thetrading post which HisCatholic Majesty wishesto establish
to the south of the River Noun, since he cannot take responsibility for
accidents and misfortunes, because his domination [sus dominios]does

not extend so far. ... Northwards from Santa Cruz, His Imperial
Majesty grants to the Canary Islanders and the Spaniards the right of
fishing without authorizing any other nation to do so."

It alsodisputes themeaningattributed by Morocco to thecrucial words in the
Arabic text and maintains that the meaning found in the Spanish text is

confirmed by the wording of contemporary letters sent by the Sultan to
King Carlos III, as well as other diplomatic material, and by a later
Hispano-Moroccan treaty of 1799.Morocco, it should be interposed, in its
turn questions the meaning given by Spain to certain words in the Arabic
texts of the Sultan's lettersand the767treaty. Spain, however,on thebasis of
its interpretations of the various texts, contends that Article 18of that treaty,

far from evidencing Spanish recognition of the Sultan's sovereignty to the
south of the Wad Noun, constitutes a disavowal by the Sultan himself ofany
pretensions to authority in thatregion.

111. The Court does not find it necessary to resolve the controversy
regarding the text of Article18of this earlytreaty, because a number of later

treaties, closer to the time of the colonization of Western Sahara and thus
more pertinent in the present connection, contained clauses of a similar
character, concerning mariners shipwrecked on coasts of the Wad Noun. It
confines itself, therefore, to the following observations: In so far as this, or
any other treaty provision, is relied upon by Morocco as showing
international recognition by another State of Moroccan sovereignty,it would

be difficult toconsider such international recognition as established on the
solebasis of a Moroccan text diverging materially from an authentic text of 51 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

s'écarte substantiellement du texteauthentique du mêmetraitérédigé dans la
langue de l'autre Etat. De toute manière, la question de la reconnaissance
internationale que soulèverait,selon le Maroc, I'article 18 du traitéde 1767

tourne autour du sens à attribuer à des expressions comme« oued Noun et
au-delà » et« au sud du fleuve Noun »,ce qui est également controversé et
doit êtreexaminéà propos des traités ultérieurs.
112. En fait, I'article 18 du traité de 1767 a été remplacé, auxfins
considérées ici, par lesdispositions de I'article traitéhispano-marocain
de commerceet de navigation du 20 novembre 1861,qui s'inspirait lui-même
de clausesanalogues de traitéssignéspar leMaroc aveclesEtats-Unisen 1836

et avecla Grande-Bretagne en 1856.Lesdispositions pertinentes du traitéde
1861sont lessuivantes:

«Si un bâtiment espagnol, de guerre ou de commerce, échoue ou
naufragesur un point quelconque des côtes du Maroc, ilsera respecte et
protégédans tout ce qu'il luifaudra conformément aux lois de l'amitié,
et leditbâtiment, avectout ce qu'ilcontiendra, sera conservéet restitué

ses maîtres ou au consul générald'Espagne ..Si un navire espagnol
naufrageaitàl'oued Noun ou en tout autre point de cette côte, le roi du
Maroc emploiera tout son pouvoir pour sauver lecapitaine et l'équipage
jusqu'à ce qu'ils retournent dans leur pays, et il sera permis au consul
général d'Espagne, au consul, vice-consul, agent consulaire ou leur
délégué de prendre toutes les informations ou renseignements qu'ils
voudront ..Les gouverneurs du roi du Maroc aideront également le

consul général d'Espagne,le consul, vice-consul, agent consulaire ou
leur déléguédans leurs investigations, conformément aux lois de
l'amitié.

Le Maroc soutient que ces dispositions ainsi que des dispositions similaires
d'autres traités reconnaissent quedesautorités marocaines gouverneursau
servicedu sultan du Maroc - existaient dans leNoun etau Sahara occidental

et qu'elles avaient des possibilités d'action effectives. Ces traités recon-
naîtraient en outre, d'aprèsleMaroc, la souverainetémarocainesur leSahara
occidental puisque I'article 38précité habilitelesautorités espagnolesà faire
enquêtesurlesort desnaufragésen vertu d'une autorisation donnéeàceteffet
par le Sultan.
113. Le Maroc considère au surplus que cette interprétation des dispo-
sitions conventionnelles est confirmée par des documents diplomatiques

espagnols ayant trait à la libération, en 1863, de neuf matelots du navire
espagnol Esmeralda que des « Maures de la côtefrontière» avaient capturés
au cours d'une expéditionde pêche.D'après ces documents, cet incident
s'étaitproduit « à plus de 180 milles au sud du cap Noun » et les Maures
avaient exigéune rançon. Le ministre d'Etat espagnol avait alors chargé le
ministred'Espagne au Maroc d'intervenir auprèsdu Sultan, conformément à
I'article38 du traité de 1861,afin qu'il «use de son pouvoir pour sauver les

marins captifs ».On devait apprendre par la suite que les marins avaient été WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 51

the same treaty written in the language of the other State. In any event, the
question of international recognition which Morocco claims to be raised by
Article18 of the Treaty of1767 hinges upon the meaning to be given to such
phrases as "Wad Noun and beyond" and "to the south of the River Noun",
which is also a matter in dispute and calls for consideration in connection

with thelater treaties.
112.Article 18of the1767 treaty isindeedsuperseded for present purposes
by provisions in Article38 of the Hispano-Moroccan Treaty of Commerce
and Navigation of 20 November 1861, which itself followed the mode1 of
similar provisions in treaties signed by Morocco with the United States in
1836 and with Great Britain in 1856. The relevant provisions of the 1861

treaty ran:

"If a Spanish vessel of war or merchant ship get aground or be
wrecked onany part of the coasts of Morocco,sheshallbe respected and
assisted in every way, in conformity with the laws of friendship, and the
said vessel and everything in her shall be taken care of and returned to
her owners, or to the Spanish Consul-General... If a Spanish vesselbe
wrecked at Wad Noun or on any other part of its coast, the Sultan of

Morocco shall make use of his authority to save and protect theaster
and crew until they return to their country, and the Spanish
Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul, Consular Agent, or person
appointed by them shall be allowed to collect every information they
may require ...The Governors in the service of the Sultan of Morocco
shall likewise assist the Spanish Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul,

Consular Agent or person appointed by them, in their investigations,
according to the laws of friendship."

Morocco considers that these provisions, and similar provisions in other
treaties, recognize the existence of Moroccan authorities in theoun and
Western Sahara, in the form of Governors in the service of the Sultan of
Morocco, and also the effectivepossibilities of action byose Governors. It

also argues that they recognize Moroccan sovereigntyover Western Sahara
because under Article 38 the Spanish authorities receive permission to
enquire into the fate of shipwrecked mariners and derive that permission
from the Sultan.
113. Morocco further considers that this view of the treaty provisions is
confirmed by Spanish diplomatic documents relating to the recovery in1863
of nine sailors from the Spanish vessel Esmeralda who had been captured,

while fishing,by "Moors of the frontier coast". According to the documents,
this incident occurred "more than 180 miles south of Cape Noun" and the
Moors had demanded a ransom. The Spanish Minister of State had then
instructed the Spanish Minister in Morocco to makethe necessary request to
the Sultan, pursuant to Article38 of the1861 treaty, "to use his powers to
rescue the captive sailors". In due course theailors were reported to have

been freed and to be in the hands of Sheikh Beyrouk of the Noun; and the52 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

libéréset se trouvaient entre les mains du cheik Beyrouk dans le Noun; le
ministre d'Espagne au Maroc étaitautoriséà faire un présentau cheik en

témoignagede gratitude.
114. L'Espagne soutient au contraire que les clauses concernant les
naufragés ont directement leur origine dans l'état d'insoumissionoù se
trouvaient le Sous et le Noun et souligne que les traités prévoyaient deux
systèmesde secours et de protection. L'un, qu'elleappelle le régimegénéral,
concernait les régionsoù le Sultan exerçait son autoritéet où il s'engageaità

user de ses pouvoirs normaux pour protégerles naufragés. L'autre étaitun
régimepropre à I'oued Noun. Siun bâtiment faisait naufrage sur lescôtes de
I'oued Noun ou au-delà, les clauses des traités envisageaient les devoirs du
Sultan sous un jour différent. Dans cette éventualité,le Sultan ne com-
mandait ni ne protég9aitmais il s'engageait à essayer d'obtenir la libération

des naufragés dans la mesure de ses possibilités;pour y parvenir, il devait
userde son influence auprèsdes populations des territoires avoisinant son
domaine et négocier,le plus souvent avec les pouvoirs locaux, le rachat des
naufragés. Il n'agissait donc pas, d'après l'Espagne, dans I'exercice de sa
propre autorité.
115. L'Espagne fait d'autre part étatde divers documents diplomatiques

relatifs à la délivrance de marins naufragés qui confirmeraient selon elle
l'interprétationprécédente. Il résulteraitde ces documents que, lors de tous
ces incidents, y compris celui de I'Esmeralda, l'intervention de la familledes
cheiks Beyrouk de I'oued Noun a étédécisivepour obtenir la libérationdes
captifs, qui a étnégociée directement avec le consul d'Espagne à Mogador.

Dans un cas, d'après ces documents, le cheik Beyrouk a fait savoir aux
autorités espagnoles qu'il avait résistéaux efforts du Sultan visant à lui
arracher les prisonniers, et que leur libertén'avait étéobtenue quequand il
avait lui-même«traitél'affaireavec la nation espagnole ».L'Espagne y voit
la preuve qu'au nord d'Agadir le Sultan exerçait son pouvoir et étaitême
de commander; au sud d'Agadir, dans le Sous, le Noun etle Draa, le Sultan

négociait avecles pouvoirs locaux et ne commandait pas, ce qui, d'après
l'Espagne, expliquerait le rôle de premier planjoué enla matièrepar lecheik
Beyrouk.
116. La thèsedu Maroc suivant laquelle ces traités traduisent une recon-
naissance internationale de l'exercice de sa souveraineté au Sahara occi-
dental postule que des expressions comme «lescôtes de I'oued Noun »,«.au

sud du fleuveNoun »,«I'oued Noun et au-delà » peuvent englober leSahara
occidental. Cet argument repose sur l'idéeque l'expression oued Noun avait
deux sens:un sensétroit, restreintI'ouedNoun lui-même, l'autre, plus large,
s'appliquant non seulement àI'ouedNoun mais aussi auDraa et àla Sakiet El
Hamra. C'est dans ce dernier sens plus large, dit le Maroc, que ces mots

étaientemployésdans lesdocuments ettraités marocains. L'Espagne soutient
en revanche qu'aucune preuve n'a étéapportée de l'emploi des mots oued
Noun dans ce sens spécial,qu'on n'en trouve aucune confirmation dans la
cartographie de l'époque etque les témoignages des voyageurs et des
explorateurs sont concluants quant au fait que le pays de I'ouedNoun était WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 52

Spanish Minister in Morocco was authorized to make a gift to the sheikh as a
mark of gratitude.

114. Spain, on the other hand, claims that the origin of the shipwreck
clauses was directly connected with thestate of insubordination in the Souss
and the Noun, and stresses that the treaties contained two systems of rescue
and protection. One system, which it calls the general system, provided for

areas where the Sultan did exercise his authority and undertook to use his
normal powers to protect the shipwrecked. The other was a special régimefor
the Wad Noun. If a vesse1wereshipwrecked at the Wad Noun or beyond, the
treaty provisions gave a different answer as to the duty of the Sultan. In that
case, he did not "order" or "protect" but undertook to try to liberate the
shipwrecked persons so faras he was able; and in order to do that he would

usehisinfluence withthe peoplesneighbouring on hisrealm and negotiate the
ransoming of the sailors, usually with the local authorities. It was not, Spain
considers, a matter of his exercising his own authority.

115. Spain also refers to various diplomatic documents relating to the

recovery of sailors from a number of shipwrecked vesselsas confirming the
above interpretation of the clauses. Those documents, it States,show that in
al1those cases,including that of theEsmeralda, it was the intervention of the
Beyrouk family, the sheikhs of the Wad Noun, which was decisive for the
liberation of the captives, and that they negotiated directly with the Spanish

Consul at Mogador. In one case, according to these documents, Sheikh
Beyrouk informed the Spanish authorities that he had resisted the Sultan's
efforts to wrest the prisoners from him and that their liberation had been
achieved only when he himself had "negotiated the affair with the Spanish
nation". According to Spain, this evidence indicates that to the north of
Agadir the power of the Sultan was exercised and the Sultan could give

orders; from Agadir to the south, in the Souss, the Noun and the Dra'a, the
Sultan negotiated with local powers, hecould not giveorders; and this, Spain
says,explains the cardinal role played by Sheikh Beyrouk in these matters.
116. Implicit in Morocco's clairn that these treaties signify international
recognition of the exercise of its sovereignty in Western Sahara is the
proposition that phrases such as "the coasts of Wad Noun", "to the south of

Wad Noun" or "Wad Noun and beyond" are apt to comprise Western
Sahara. This proposition it advances on the basis that "Wad Noun" was a
term used with two meanings: one narrow and restricted to the Wad Noun
itself,theother wider and covering not only the Wad Noun but the Dra'a and
the Sakiet El Hamra. This wider meaning, it indicates, wastheone with which

the term was used in Moroccan documents and treaties. Spain, on the other
hand, maintains that no evidencehas been adduced to demonstrate the useof
the term Wad Noun withthat specialmeaning, that there isno trace of it inthe
cartography of the period and that the testimony of travellers and explorers is
conclusive as to the geographical separation of the Wad Noun countryfrom 53 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

géographiquement distinct de la Sakiet El Hamra. C'est au Maroc qu'il

incombe de démontrer de façon convaincante que le terme avait le sens
spécial qu'il lui attribue (Statut juridique du Groënland oriental, C.P.J.I.
sériéA/B no53,p. 49). Selon la Cour, cette démonstration n'a pas été faite.
117. Dans le cas particulier de I'Esmeralda, et ainsi que la Cour l'a déjà
mentionné, le Maroc fait état de documents attestant que l'Espagne s'est
adresséeau Sultan en 1863pour obtenir l'application de l'article 38du traité

de 1861,àpropos d'un incident qui s'étaitproduit àplus de 180millesau sud
du cap Noun. On pourrait donc voir dans cet incident l'indication de ce que
l'Espagne reconnaissait I'applicabilitéde laclausedu traitéàcettepartiede la
côte du Sahara occidental. Toutefois, et surtout si on les rapproche d'autres
pièces soumises à la Cour au sujet du mêmeincident, ces documents ne
semblent pas autoriser à conclure que l'Espagne admettait par là mêmela

souverainetéterritoriale du Sultan sur cette régiondu Sahara occidental. Les
documents en question et l'incident lui-mêmesemblent plutôt confirmerque
l'article8 et d'autres clauses similaires concernaient en fait l'exercice de
I'autoritéou deI'influencepersonnelle du Sultan par l'intermédiairedescaïds
Tekna de I'ouedNoun, afinde négocierla rançon àverser àla tribu quitenait

lesnaufragéscaptifs ausud de I'oued Noun. LeMaroca assurément raisonde
direque cesdispositions auraient étésans objet sil'autre Etat intéressén'avait
oas considéré leSultan comme caoable d'exercerunecertaineautorité ou une
certaine influence sur ceux qui détenaient les marins. Mais c'est tout autre
chose que de soutenir que, par là, l'autre Etat intéressé reconnaissait surle
plan international le Sultan comme souverain territorial au Sahara occi-

dental.
118. Selon la Cour, l'examen qui précèdemontre que lesclauses susvisées
ne sauraient êtreconsidérées commeemportant reconnaissance internatio-
nale de la souveraineté territoriale du Sultan au Sahara occidental. Il
confirme qu'elles doivent êtreinterprétées commeconcernant la manifes-

tation de l'autoritéou de l'influence du Sultan au Sahara occidental seule-
ment sur le plan de liens d'allégeance ou de l'influence personnelle par
rapport à certaines des tribus nomades du territoire.

119. Le Maroc invoque le traitéanglo-marocain du 13mars 1895comme
preuved'une reconnaissance internationale expressepar la Grande-Bretagne
de ce que le territoire marocain atteignait le cap Bojador au sud. Ce traité
concernait l'achat par le Sultan à la North West African Company de la
factorerie établie quelques annéesauparavant au cap Juby à la suite d'ac-

cords conclus entre M. Donald Mackenzie et le cheik Beyrouk. Le traité de
1895 prévoyait notamment que, si le Gouvernement marocain concluait
l'achat, ((aucune Puissance ne pourra émettre des prétentionssur les terri-
toires allant de I'oued Draa au cap Bojador et appelésTarfaya comme il est
dit plus haut et à l'intérieur parce que ces territoires appartiennent au
~aroc ». En vertu d'une autre clause leGouvernement marocain s'engageait WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 53

the Sakiet El Hamra. It isfor Morocco to demonstrate convincinglythe useof
the term with that special meaning (cf. Legal Status of Eastern Greenland,
P.C.I.J.,SeriesA/B, No. 53,p. 49) and this demonstration, in the view ofthe
Court, is lacking.
117. In the particular case of the Esmeralda ; as the Court has already
noted, Morocco points to documents showing a request by Spain to the

Sultan in 1863for the application of Article 38of theTreaty of 1861in respect
of an incident which had occurred more than 180miles to the south of Cape
Noun. That incident may, therefore, be invoked as indicating Spain's
recognition of the applicability of the treaty provision in relation to that part
of the Coastof Western Sahara. But those documents, especially when read
together with further documents before the Court relating to the same

incident, do not appear to warrant the conclusion that Spain thereby also
recognized the Sultan's territorial sovereignty over that part of Western
Sahara. Thedocuments, and the whole incident, appear rather ta confirmthe
view that Article 38, and other similar provisions, concerned, instead, the
exercise of the personal authority or influence of the Sultan, through the

Tekna caids of the Wad Noun, to negotiate the ransom of the shipwrecked
sailors from the tribe holding them captive to the south of the Wad Noun.
Clearly, Morocco is correct in saying that these provisions would have been
pointless ifthe other State concerned had not considered the Sultan to be in a
position to exercisesome authority or influenceover the people holding the
sailors captive. But it is a quite different thing to maintain that those

provisions implied international recognition by the other State concerned of
the Sultan as territorial sovereign in Western Sahara.
118. Examination of the provisions discussed above shows therefore, in
the view of the Court, that they cannot be considered as implying
international recognition of the Sultan's territorial sovereignty in Western
Sahara. It confirms that they are to be understood as concerned with the

display of the Sultan's authority or influence in Western Sahara only in terms
of tiesof allegiance or of personal influencein respect of someof the nomadic
tribes of the territory.

119. The Anglo-Moroccan Agreement of 13 March 1895 is invoked by
Morocco as evidencing specific international recognition by Great Britain
that Moroccan territory reached as far south as Cape Bojador. This treaty
concerned the purchase by the Sultan from the North-West African
Company of the trading-station which had been set up at Cape Juby some

years previously by agreements made between Mr. Donald Mackenzie and
Sheikh Beyrouk. The treaty of 1895provided interalia that, if the Moroccan
Government bought thetrading-station from the Company,"no one willhave
any clairn to the lands that are between Wad Draa and Cape Bojador, and
which are calledTerfaya above named, and al1the lands behind it,because al1
this belongs to the territory of Morocco". A further clause provided that the54 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

pour sa part «àne céderà personne aucune parcelle des terres sus-désignées
sans l'accord du Gouvernement anglais ».Le Maroc demande à la Cour
d'interprétercesdispositions comme portant reconnaissance expresse,par la

Grande-Bretagne, de la souveraineté marocaine pendant la période perti-
nente surtout le territoire compris entre l'oued Draa et le cap Bojador et sur
son hinterland.
120. La difficultéque suscite cette interprétation du traité de 1895 est
qu'elle ne concorde pas avec les faits tels qu'ils ressortent de la correspon-
dance diplomatique concernant la transaction sur la factorerie Mackenzie.

De nombreux documents soumis à la Cour au sujet de cette transaction
établissentque la Grande-Bretagne a maintes fois exprimé l'opinion que le
cap Juby se trouvait en dehors du territoire marocain qui, d'après elle, ne
s'étendait pas au-delà du Draa. Compte tenu de ces données,il semble à la
Cour que, en vertu des dispositions du traitéde 1895invoquéespar le Maroc,
la Grande-Bretagne s'engageaitàne plus s'opposer àl'avenir aux prétentions

du Sultan sur les terres comprises entre le Draa et le capojador, mais sàns
pour autant reconnaître une souveraineté marocaine préexistante sur ces
terres. Bref, ce qu'obtenait le Sultan, c'était l'acceptation par la Grande-
Bretagne non pas de sa souveraineté actuelle mais de ses intérêts dans la
région.

*

121. Le Maroc demande égalementà la Cour de considérer comme des
signesde la reconnaissance par l'Espagne de lasouveraineté du Maroc sur les
régionss'étendant au sud jusqu'au cap Bojador certains documents diploma-
tiques relatifs àl'exécutiondes dispositions de l'article 8du traitédeTétouan
de 1860et un accord qui aurait étéconclu àcetégard avecl'Espagneen 1900.
Par l'article 8 du traité de Tétouan, le Sultan s'était engagéà concéder à

I'Espagne «à perpétuité ...sur la côte de l'océan, prèsde Santa Cruz la
Pequeiia, le territoire suffisant pour la construction d'un établissement de
pêcherie commecelui que l'Espagne y possédait autrefois». Le Maroc fait
état d'une notediplomatique du 19octobre 1900 adressée au ministre des
affairesétrangèresde Belgiquepar l'ambassadeur d'Espagne à Brugelles,où
il est fait mention d'instructions données au représentant de l'Espagne à

Tanger pour négocierl'échangeentre le port d'Ifni et un autre port situé
entre Ifni et lecap Bojador ainsi que la cession de la citéde Tarfaya entre le
Draa et lecap Bojador ..»Une publication parue en Espagne la mêmeannée
sembledonner quelquefondement àl'indication d'aprèslaquelle,àlasuite de
cesnégociations,un protocole aurait été conclu àce sujet.
122. Pour sa part, l'Espagne nie absolument l'existencede ceprotocole; en

effet,déclare-t-elle,le Maroc yétantlui-mêmepartie,il n'aurait pas manqué
de le produire s'il avait été conclu.Un examen des archives espagnoles
montre, d'aprèselle,qu'aucun accord n'a été conclu lors de cette ambassade,
quoique la presse de l'époque ait publié desnouvelles erronéesà ce sujet. La
Mauritanie, elle aussi, met fortement en doute l'existence du protocole et
déclare: WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 54

Moroccan Government in turn undertook that "they willnot giveany part of
the above-named lands to any-one whatsoeverwithout the concurrence of the
English Government". Morocco asks the Court to see these provisions as
constituting expressrecognition by Great Britainof Moroccan sovereignty at
the relevant period inal1the land between the Wad Dra'a and Cape Bojador

and the hinterland.
120. The difficulty with this interpretation of t1895 treaty is that it is
at variance with the facts as shown in the diplomatic correspondence
surrounding the transaction concerning the Mackenzie trading-station;
Numerous documents relating to this transaction and presented to the Court
show that the position repeatedlytaken by Great Britain was that Cape Juby
was outside Moroccan territory, which in its viewdid not extend beyond the

Dra'a. In the light of this material theprovisions of1895 treaty invoked by
Morocco appearto the Court to represent an agreement by Great Britain not
to question in future any pretensions of the Sultan to the lands between the
Dra'a and Cape Bojador, and not a recognition by Great Britain of
previously existing Moroccan sovereignty over those lands. In short, what
those provisions yielded to the Sultan wasacceptance by Great Britain not of
his existingsovereignty but of his interest in that area.

121. Morocco also asks the Court to find indications of Spanish
recognition of Moroccan sovereignty southwards as far as Cape Bojador in
diplomatic material concerning theimplementation of Article 8of theTreaty
of Tetuan of 1860 and an agreement of 1900 alleged to have been concluded
with Spain inthat connection. ByArticle 8 of theTreaty of Tetuan, theSultan
had agreed to concede to Spain "in perpetuity, on the Coastof theOcean, near

Santa Cruz la Pequefia, the territory sufficient for the construction of a
fisheriesestablishment, as Spain possessed in prior times". Morocco invokes
a diplomatic Note of 19 October 1900 from the Spanish Ambassador in
Brussels to the Belgian Foreign Minister, which referred to instructions
having been given to the Spanish representative in Tangier "to negotiate an
exchange between the port of Ifni and anotherport situated between Ifni and
Cape Bojador as well as the cession of the city of Terfaya between the Dra'a

and Cape Bojador ...".In the same year a publication in Spain appeared to
givesome substance to the suggestion that as a result ofhose negotiations a
protocol had been concluded in this connection.
122. Spaiq however, denies altogether the existence of any such protocol,
which, it argues, Morocco could not have failed to produce if it had been
concluded; for Morocco itself would have been one of the parties to this
allegedagreement. Anexamination of itsarchives,Spain States,showsthat no
agreement was concluded at the time of the mission, although the press

published erroneous news on the subject at the time. Mauritania also voices
strong doubts as to the existence of the alleged protocol. Itlfurther says: 55 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

« En l'absence de preuve directe, face a des référencesde seconde
main, dont lecaractèregéographiqueestvagueetgénérali,lestdifficilede

se prononcer sur la question et, en particulier, d'en tirer des conclusions
sur des reconnaissances de caractère territorial par le Gouvernement
espagnol. »

123. Les doutes émisà la fois par l'Espagne et la Mauritanie au sujet du
protocole qui aurait été concluen 1900 n'ont pas été dissipéspar les
renseignementsqui sont en la possession de la Cour. La Cour ne peut donc
tenir compte de l'existenceéventuelled'untel document.

124. Restent les lettres annexées l'accord du 4 novembre 1911entre la
France et l'Allemagnequi constituent, selon le Maroc, la reconnaissance par
ces Puissances de sa souveraineté sur la Sakiet El Hamra. Aux termes de

l'article premier de l'accord, l'Allemagne s'est engagéeà ne pas entraver
l'action de la France au Maroc. Leslettres échangéesindiquent en outre:

« L'Allemagne restera étrangère aux accords particuliers que la
France et l'Espagne croiront devoir faire entre elles au sujet du Maroc,
étantconvenu que le Maroc comprend toute la partie de l'Afrique du
Nord s'étendant entre l'Algérie,l'Afrique occidentale française et la
colonie espagnole du Rio de Oro. »

C'estsur ce dernier passage que se fonde le Maroc; ilsoutient que,quelle que
soit l'interprétation donnée à l'échangede lettres, ce membre de phrase
signifie que l'accord reconnaissait l'appartenance de laakiet El Hamra au

Maroc. Pour étayer cette thèse, le Maroc fait état de certaines correspon-
dances diplomatiques qui, selon lui, démontrent que, lorsque la France et
l'Allemagne ont préparéI'échangede lettres, elles entendaient «poser le
principe que la Sakiet El Hamra faisait partie du territoire marocain ».

125. L'Espagne pour sa part cite l'article 6de la convention antérieure du
3octobre 1904entre la France et l'Espagne qui dispose:

«leGouvernement de la Républiquefrançaise reconnaît dèsmaintenant
au Gouvernement espagnol pleine libertéd'actionsur la régioncomprise
entre les degrés6' et 27' 40' de latitude Nord et leméridien11OOuest
de Paris qui sont en dehors du territoire marocain.

Elle indique en outre que l'article 2 de la convention franco-espagnole du
27 novembre 1912 énonce expressémentque l'article 6 de la convention de

1904resteraapplicable. Ellefait remarquer que, par cesdeux conventions, la
France reconnaissait clairement que la Sakiet El Hamra était«en dehors du
territoire marocain». D'autre part l'Espagne conteste l'opinion émisepar le
Maroc au cours de la procédureselon laquellecesconventions neseraient pas
opposables au Maroc. Elle signale également d'autres documents diploma- WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 55

"In the absence of direct evidence, and faced with second-hand
references, which are geographically vague and general, it is difficultto
expressa viewon thequestion, and in particular to draw anyconclusions
as to territorial recognitions by the Spanish G~vernment.~'

123. The doubts raised by both Spain and Mauritania as to the alleged
protocol of 1900have not been dispelled by-thematerial before the Court.
The Court is not, therefore, able to take the possible existence of such a

document into account.

124. There remains the exchange of letters annexed to the Agreement

between France and Germany of 4 November 1911,which Morocco presents
as recognition by those Powers of Moroccan sovereignty over the Sakiet El
Hamra. In Article 1 of the Agreement Germany undertook not to interfere
with the action of France in Morocco. The exchange of letters then further
provided that:

"Germany willnot intervene in any special agreements which France
and Spain may think fit to conclude with each other on the subject of
Morocco, it being understood that Morocco comprises al1that part of
northern Africa which is situated between Algeria, French West Africa

and the Spanish colony of Rio de Oro."
It is on these last words that Morocco relies;and it maintains that, whatever

construction is put upon the exchange of letters, those words mean that the
agreement recognized that the Sakiet El Hamra belonged to Morocco. In
support of this contention, it refers to certain diplomatic letters which are
claimed to show that, when France and Germany drew up theexchange, they
meant "to posit the principle that the Sakiet El Hamra was part of Moroccan
territory".

125. Spain, on the other hand, points to Article 6 of the earlier
Franco-Spanish Convention of 3 October 1904,which stated:

"... the Government of the French Republic acknowledges that Spain
has henceforward full liberty of action in regard to the territory

comprised between the 26" and 27" 40' north latitude and the 11th
meridian Westof Paris, which are outside the limits of Morocco".

It further points to Article 2 of the Franco-Spanish Convention of
27 November 1912 as providing expressly that Article 6 of the 1904
Convention wasto "remain effective". In those two Conventions, it observes,
France clearlyrecognized that the Sakiet El Hamra was "outside the limitsof
Morocco". At the same time, it contests the viewexpressed by Morocco in the
proceedings that these Conventions are not opposable to Morocco. It also

draws attention to other diplomatic material relating to the 1911 exchange 56 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

tiques touchant l'échangede lettres de 1911 qui, selon elle, démontreraient
qu'il s'agissaitdesrapports franco-allemands et non de lafrontière du Maroc

à l'époque.
126. La Cour soulignequ'en l'espècece n'est pas la position de l'Espagne
dans la Sakiet El Hamra qui est encause mais la reconnaissance par d'autres
Etats de la souveraineté du Maroc sur cette région au moment de sa
colonisation par l'Espagne. En conséquencela question de savoir dans quelle
mesure ces accords peuvent ou non être opposablesà l'un quelconque des

Etats intéressésne se pose pas. La Cour ne tient compte des divers accords
internationaux citéspar le Maroc et par l'Espagne que pour autant qu'ils
peuvent contenir desindicationssurcette reconnaissance. Or, de l'avisde la
Cour, cesaccords n'ont qu'unevaleur restreinte àcetégardcar leurbut n'était
ni de reconnaître une souveraineté existante sur un territoire ni d'en nier

I'existence.Ils avaient plutôt pour but, dans des contextes divers, de recon-
naître ou de réserverà l'unedes parties ou aux deux une zone d'influence,au
sens où l'entendait la pratique de I'époque. Autrement dit, une partie
accordait à I'autre laliberté d'actiondans certaines régions biendéfinies,ou
s'engageait à ne pas intervenir dans une régionque l'autre revendiquait. De

tels accords étaientde nature essentiellement contractuelle. C'est pourquoi
une partie pouvait reconnaître en 1904,vis-à-visde l'Espagne, que la Sakiet
El Hamra était«en dehors du territoire marocain »afin de lui donner pleine
liberté d'actiondans la région, etcependant recourir en 191 1à une descrip-
tion géographiquedu Maroc différenteafind'excluretotalement l'Allemagne
de la région.

127. En conséquencela Cour estime qu'il est difficiled'accepter leslettres
échangées en 1911 par la France et l'Allemagne comme preuves de la
reconnaissance des limites du Maroc; il s'agissait plutôt de délimiterla zone
des intérêts politiquede la France par rapport à l'Allemagne.

128. 11ne semble donc pas àla Courque l'examendes différentséléments
invoquéspar le Maroc en l'espèceétablissela reconnaissance internationale
par d'autres Etats de la souveraineté territoriale du Maroc au Sahara
occidental au -moment.de la colonisation espagnole. Cependant, certains
éléments, et plusparticulièrement les renseignements intéressant la déli-

vrance des marins naufragés, fournissent des indications quant à la recon-
naissance internationale d'une autorité ou d'une influence du Sultan au
moment de la colonisation sur certains nomades du Sahara occidental par
l'intermédiairede caïds Tekna de la régiondu Noun.

129. Lesconclusions que l'on peut tirer des renseignements dont la Cour
dispose en ce qui concerne d'un côté les actes internes de souveraineté
marocaine et de l'autre les actes internationaux coïncident en ce que ni les
unes ni les autres n'indiquent l'existence, à l'époque considéréed,e liens WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 56

of letters and claimed by it to show that this was concerned with
Franco-German relations and not with the existing frontier of Morocco.

126. In thepresent connection, the Court emphasizes,thequestion at issue
isnot theSpanish position in the Sakiet El Hamra but the alleged recognition
by other States of Moroccan sovereigntyover the Sakiet El Hamra at the time
of colonization by Spain. Accordingly the question of how far any of these

agreements may or may not be opposable to any of the Statesconcerned does
not arise. The various international agreements referred to by Morocco and
Spain are of concern to the Court only in so far as they rnay contain
indications of such recognition. These agreements, in the opinion of the
Court, are of limitedvalue in this regard; for was not their purpose either to
recognize an existing sovereignty over a territory or to deny its existence.

Their purpose, in their different contexts, was rather to recognizeor reserve
forone or both parties a "sphere of influence" asunderstood in thepractice of
that time. In other words, one party granted to the other freedom of action in
certain defined areas, or promised non-interference in an area claimed by the
other party. Suchagreements wereessentiallycontractual incharacter. This is

why one party might be found acknowledging in 1904,vis-à-vis Spain, that
the Sakiet El Hamra was "outside the limits of Morocco" in order to allow
Spain full liberty of action in regard to that area, and yet employing a
differentgeographical description of Morocco in 1911in order to ensure the
complete exclusion of Germany from that area.

127. In consequence, the Court finds difficulty in accepting the
Franco-German exchange of letters of 1911asconstituting recognition of the
limits of Morocco rather than of the sphere of France's political interests
vis-à-visGermany.

128. Examination of the various elements adduced by Morocco in the
present proceedings does not, therefore, appearto the Court to establish the
international recognition by other States of Moroccan territorial sovereignty
in Western Sahara at the time of the Spanish colonization. Some elements,
however,moreespeciallythe material relating to the recovery of shipwrecked
sailors, do provide indications of international recognition at the time of

colonization of authority or influence of the Sultan, displayed throughekna
caids of the Noun, over some nomads in Western Sahara.

129. The inferences to be drawn from the information before the Court
concerning interna1acts of Moroccan sovereignty and from that concerning
international acts are, therefore, in accord in not providing indications of the
existence, at the relevant period, of any legal tie of territorial sovereignty 57 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVIS CONSULTATIF)

juridiques de souveraineté territoriale entre le Sahara occidental et I'Etat
marocain. Ellescoïncident aussi en ceau'ellesindiauent l'existenced'un lien
juridique d'allégeanceentre le Sultan et certaines, mais certaines seulement,

des tribus du Sahara occidental et en cequ'ellesindiquent des manifestations
d'une certaineautorité ou d'une certaine influence du Sultan àl'égardde ces
tribus.Avant detenter de formulerd'une manièreplus précisesesconclusions
sur la réponse à donner à la question II relativement au Maroc, la Cour doit
examinerla situation du territoire au moment de la colonisation par rapport

àI'ensemblemauritanien. La raison en est que les «liensjuridiques »que fait
valoir la Mauritanie s'entrecroisent dans une certaine mesure avec ceux
qu'invoque le Maroc.

130. La Cour examinera donc quels étaient les liens juridiques ent.re le
Sahara occidental et I'ensemblemauritanien au moment de la colonisation

par l'Espagne. Ainsi qu'il ressort de l'énoncémêmede la question II, à
l'époquela position de la République islamiquede Mauritanie à l'égarddu
Sahara occidental différaitde celle du Maroc puisqu'il n'y avait pas en ce
temps-là d'Etat mauritanien. Dans la présente affaire, la Mauritanie a
expressémentadmis que 1'«ensemble mauritanien » ne constituait pas alors
un Etat et quesa qualitéactuelle d'Etat «nerétroagit pas».Une conséquence

évidenteest que, dans le cas de I'«ensemble mauritanien »,la Cour n'a pas à
s'occuper de liensjuridiques de souverainetéétatiquemais de liensjuridiques
d'une autre nature. IIs'ensuit aussiquela Cour doitcommencer par examiner
le caractère juridique de I'«ensemble mauritanien » avec lequel, selon la
République islamiquede Mauritanie, le Sahara occidental aurait eu lesliens
juridiques dont ils'agitau moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne.

131. D'aprèsles renseignements dont la Cour dispose, I'expression «en-
semble mauritanien » a été employép eour la premièrefois en 1974,au cours
de la session pendant laquelle l'Assembléegénéralea adopté la résolution
3292 (XXIX). La Mauritanie soutient que I'expression a étéutiliséepar

l'Assembléegénéralepour désigner I'ensemble culturel, géographique et
social qui existait à l'époquedans la régiondu Sahara occidental et dans
lequel allait secréerplus tard la République islamiquede Mauritanie. Il n'a
pas étécontesté que I'expressionsoitemployéeen cesensdans la question II.
132. Pour précisersaconception de I'ensemblemauritanien au moment de

la colonisation du Sahara occidental, la Mauritanie fait valoir ce qui suit:
a) Géographiquement, I'ensemble constituait une vaste région comprise
entre leméridiende Tombouctou àl'estet l'Atlantique àl'ouest etlimitée

par le fleuveSénégaalu sud et par l'ouedSakiet El Hamra au nord. Tant WESTERNSAHARACADVISORYOPINION) 57

between Western Sahara and the Moroccan State. At the same time, they are
in accord in providing indications of a legal tie of allegiance between the

Sultan and some, though only some, of the tribes of the territory, and in
providing indications of some display of the Sultan's authority or influence
with respect to those tribes. Before attempting, however, to formulate more
precisely itsconclusions as to the answer to be givento Question II in thecase
of Morocco, theCourt must examinethesituationinthe territory at the time
of colonization in relation to the Mauritanian entity. This is so because the

"legal ties" invoked by Mauritania overlap with those invoked by Morocco.

130. The Court will therefore now take up the question of what were

the legal ties which existed between Western Sahara, at the time of its
colonization by Spain, and the Mauritanian entity. As the very formulation
of Question II implies,the position of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania in
relation to Western Sahara at that date differs from that of Morocco for the
reason that there was not then any Mauritanian State in existence. In
the present proceedings Mauritania has expressly accepted that the

"Mauritanian entity" did not then constitute a State; and alsothatthe present
statehood of Mauritania "is not retroactive". Consequently, it isclear that it
is not legal ties of State sovereignty with whichtheCourt is concerned in the
case of the "Mauritanian entity" but other legal ties. It also follows that
the first point for the Court's consideration is the legal nature of the

"Mauritanian entity" with which WesternSahara isclaimed by Mauritania to
have had those legal ties at the time of colonization by Spain.

131. The term "Mauritanian entity", as appears from the information

before the Court, is a term first employed during the session of the General
Assembly in 1974at which resolution 3292(XXIX) was adopted.This term,
Mauritania maintains, was used by the General Assembly to denote the
cultural,geographical and socialentity which existedat thetime in the region
of Western Sahara and within whichthe Islamic Republic of Mauritania was
later to be created. That such isthe sensein whichthe term isused in Question

II has not been disputed.
132. Explaining its concept of the Mauritanian entity at the time of the
colonization of Western Sahara, Mauritania has stated:

(a) Geographically, the entity covered a vast region lying between, on the
east, the meridian of Timbuktu and, on the West,the Atlantic, and
bounded onthe south by the Senegal riverand on thenorth by theWad 58 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

aux yeux de ses habitants qu'à ceux des autres communautés arabo-
islamiques, cette régionconstituaitun ensemble distinct.

b) Cet ensemble étaitle Bilad Chinguiti ou pays chinguittien, groupement
humain caractérisépar unecommunauté de langue, de mode de vieet de
religion. Il avait une structure sociale uniforme comportant trois ordres:
les tribus guerrières exerçant un pouvoir politique; les tribus marabou-
tiques qui s'occupaient de religion, d'enseignement, de culture et de
justice et se livraient à des activités économiques;les tribus de clients-
vassaux placéessousla protection d'une tribu guerrièreoumaraboutique.

Uneautre caractéristiquedu Bilad Chinguiti étaitquelafemme yjouissait
d'uneplusgrande libertéquedans lessociétésislamiquev soisines.Letrait
leplus frappant du BiladChinguiti étaitl'importanceaccordéeauxtribus
maraboutiques qui sont àl'origined'une tradition culturelleécritevigou-
reuse en ce qui concerne la théologie, l'enseignement,la littératureet la
poésie; en fait, dans le monde arabe, le Bilad Chinguiti devait sa

réputationà celledessavants et lettréschinguittiens.

133. Selon la Mauritanie, il y avait deux types d'autoritépolitique dans le
Bilad Chinguiti: les émiratset les groupements de tribus non constitués en
émirats.Quatre émiratssepartageaient la majeure partie del'espacechinguit-
tien: lesémiratsdesTrarza, des Brakna, du Tagant et de l'Adrar ou setrouve

la ville de Chinguiti. Celle-ci étaità la fois le centre de la culture chinguit-
tienne et un carrefour du commerce caravanier, de sorte que l'émiratde
l'Adrar étaitdevenu le pôle d'attraction des grands nomades du Sahara. Au
moment de la colonisation du Sahara occid-ta1 par l'Espagne, I'émirde
l'Adrar était,selonla Mauritanie, la principale figurepolitique du nord et du
nord-ouest du pays chinguittien et son « influence s'étendaitde la Snkiet El
Hamra au Sénégal ».A ce sujet, la Mauritanie invoque le témoignagedu

capitaine Cervera, explorateur espagnol, qui a conclu avec I'émir en886un
des traitésd'Idjil par lequel,s'ilavaitratifié,l'Espagne aurait étreconnue
comme le souverain de tout l'Adrar Tmar. Le capitaine Cervera a déclaréà
l'époquequec'étaitgrâce àI'émirque plusieurs chefsdetribus s'étaient réunis
à Idjil; que c'étaitsous la protection de I'émirque la délégation espagnole
avait pu assistera cette réunionen toute sécurité; etque parmi les chefs de

tribus qui avaient été partiesaux deux traités alors conclus figuraient non
seulementdeschefs de l'Adrar mais aussi deschefs de tribus venant de l'ouest
de l'émirat.c'est-à-dire du territoire du Rio de Oro.
134. La Mauritanie indique qu'au moment de la colonisation espagnole il
existait dans le Sahara occidental, outre les quatre émirats,certains autres
groupements de tribus non constitués en émirats.Au nombre des principales

tribus, elle signale notamment les Aroussiyine, les Ouled Delim, les Ouled
Bou Sba, les Ahel Barikalla et les Regueibat. Elle soutient que toutes ces
tribus et les quatre émirats eux-mêmesétaient à la fois autonomes et
indépendants et ne reconnaissaient aucun lien d'allégeance politique a
l'égarddu sultan du Maroc. Leur indépendanceest attestée, selonelle,par les
nombreux traitéssignésavec les Puissances étrangèreset par le fait que« les WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 58

Sakiet El Hamra. In the eyes both of its own inhabitants and of the
Arabo-Islamic communities, that region constituted a distinct entity.

That entity was the Bilad Shinguitti, or Shinguitti country, which
constituted a distinct human unit, characterizedby a common language,
way of life and religion. It had a uniform social structure, composed of
three "orders": warriortribes exercisingpolitical power; marabout tribes
engaged in religious,teaching, cultural, judicial and economic activities;
client-vassal tribes under the protection of a warrior or marabout tribe.

Afurther characteristic of the Bilad Shinguitti was the much freer status
of women than in neighbouring Islamic societies. The most significant
feature of the Bilad Shinguitti wasthe importance given to themarabout
tribes, who created a strong written cultural tradition in religiousstudies,
education, literature and poetry; indeed, its fame in the Arab world

derived fromthe reputation acquired by its scholars.

133. According to Mauritania, two types of political authority werefound
in the Bilad Shinguitti: the emirates and the tribal groups not formed into

emirates. The major part of the Shinguitti country was composed of the four
Emirates of theTrarza, the Brakna,the Tagant and theAdrar, wherethetown
of Shinguit issituated.This town wasboth thecentre of Shinguitticulture and
a crossroads of thecaravan trade, sothatthe Emirate of theAdrar became the
pole of attraction for theimportant nomadic tribes of theSahara. At the time
of the Spanish colonization of Western Sahara, Mauritania maintains, the

Emir of the Adrar was the principal political figure of the north and
north-west Shinguitti country, and possessed "an influence extending from
the Sakiet El Hamra to the Senegal". In this connection, it invokes the
testimony of the Spanish explorer, Captain Cervera, who in 1886concluded
with the Emir at 'Ijila treaty by which, had it been ratified, Spain would have

been recognized as sovereign of the whole Adrar at-Tmarr. He had reported
at the time that it was thanks to the Emir that several tribal chiefs were
assembled at 'Ijil; that it was under the Emir's protection that the Spanish
delegation had been ableto attend the meeting safely; and that the parties to
the two treaties concluded on that occasion included chiefs not only of tribes
of the Adrar but also of tribesfrom Westof the Emirate, Le.,fromthe territory

of the Rio de Oro.
134. In addition to the four emirates, Mauritania mentions a number of
other tribal groups, not formed into emirates, which existed in Western
Sahara at the time of its colonization by Spain. Among these it names as
the main tribes the 'Aroussiyeen, Oulad Deleim, Oulad Bu-Sba', Ahil
Barik-Allah and Regheibat. It maintains that al1these tribes and the four

emirates themselves were both autonomous and independent, not ack-
nowledging any tie of political allegiance to the Sultan of Morocco. Their
independence, it States,is shown by the numerous treaties which theysigned
with foreign Powers, and by the factthat "the emirs, sheikhs and other tribal59 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

émirs,cheiks et autres chefs de tribus n'ont jamais étéinvestis par des
autoritésétrangèreset n'ontjamais tenu leur pouvoir quedes règlespropres à
la dévolutiondu pouvoir dans l'ensemble chinguittien ». Chaque émiratet

groupe de tribus était administréde façon autonome par son chef, dont la
nomination et les actes importants devaient obtenir l'assentiment de la
djemaa.
135. La Mauritanie reconnaît que lesémiratset les tribus n'étaientcoiffés
d'aucune structure hiérarchiquecommune. D'aprèselle,

« l'ensemblechinguittien ne pouvait àcetégardêtreassimiléàun Etat, ni
àune fédérationni mêmeà une confédération,àmoins que l'on ne soit
prêtà donner ce nom aux liens politiques ténus unissant les tribus les
unes avec les autre».

Il y eut dans cetensemble «de vastes confédérationsde tribusou desémirats
étendanttrès loin au-delà de leursfrontières leur influencequi participait ici
de la vassalité,à de l'alliance ».Mais la Mauritanie reconnaît que cela n'est

pas suffisantpour qu'on puissedire que «l'ensemblechinguittien bénéficiait
d'une personnalitéinternationale ou jouissait d'une souverainetéau sens où
lemot étaitentendu à l'époque».
136. Le Bilad Chinguiti était,selonla Mauritanie, une communautéayant
sacohésionpropre,sesparticularitésetun systèmede droit saharien commun
régissant l'utilisationdespoints d'eau,despâturages etdesterres agricoles,les

hostilitésentretribus et le règlementdes différends.Selon elle,

« Les personnalités juridiques ou souverainetés appartenaient en
réalitéaux élémentsde l'ensemble pour autant qu'elles n'aient pas été
aliénéese,n tout ou en partie, par des liens de vassalité ou d'alliance,au
profit d'autres élémentsde l'ensemble. Lasouveraineté desdifférents
élémentsde l'ensemble découlait, à l'évidence,de la pratique de ces
entités»;

comme maîtresse d'un territoire, chaque entité faisait assurer le respect de
celui-ci et de ses sujets contre lesactes de guerre ou de pillage et, corrélative-
ment, le souverain avait le devoir de protégerles étrangersqui se plaçaient
sous sa protection. Lorsque les émirsou les cheiks entraient les uns avec les

autres dans des rapports d'alliance ou se faisaient la guerre, il s'agissait de
rapports entre égaux. Maisl'existence de cette communauté se manifestait
lorsque son indépendance était en péril, comme le montre, d'après la
Mauritanie, le fait que les tribus conjuguèrent leurs efforts dans tout le pays
chinguittien pour enrayerla pénétration française.
137. En même temps,la Mauritanie met l'accent sur les caractéristiques

propres de la régionsaharienne et sur le nomadisme de la plupart des tribus,
déjàévoquéd sans leprésentavis.Ellesouligneque, dans cette régionaride, la
vie pastorale oblige à rechercher continuellement des pâturages suffisants
ainsi que des points d'eau, chaque tribu ayant ses zones de migration bien
définiesavecdes itinérairesde migration connus et déterminéspar I'emplace-

5 1 WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 59

chiefs were riever invested by outside authorities and always derived their
powers from the special rules governing the devolution of power in the

Shinguitti entity". Each emirate and tribal group was autonomously
administered by its ruler, whose appointment and important acts were
subject to the assent of the assembly of the Juma'a.

135. Mauritania recognizesthat theemirates and thetribes werenot under
any common hierarchical structure. "In this respect", it has said:

"...the Shinguitti entity could not be assimilated to a State, nor to a
federation, nor even to a confederation, unless one saw fit to give that
name to the tenuous political ties linking the various tribes".

Within the entity there were "great confederations of tribes, or emirates

whose influence, in the form sometimes of vassalage and sometimes of
alliance, extended far beyond their own frontiers". Even so, Mauritania
recognizes that this is not a sufficient basis for saying that "the Shinguitti
entity was endowed with international personality, or enjoyed any
sovereignty as the word was understood at that time".
136. The Bilad Shinguitti, according to Mauritania, was a community

having its own cohesion, its own special characteristics, and a common
Saharan law concerning the use of water-holes, grazing lands and
agricultural lands, the regulation of inter-tribal hostilities and the settlement
of disputes. Within this community:

"It was inrealitythe component entities which wereendowed with the
legal personalities or sovereignties, Save in so far as these had been
wholly or partly alienated, by ties of vassalageor alliance, to other such
components. The sovereignty of the different component entities

obviouslyderived from their practice";

eachbody, as master of a territory, ensured theprotection of theterritory and
of itssubjectsagainst acts of war or pillageand, correspondingly, itsr had
the duty to safeguard outsiders who sought his protection.hen the emirs or
sheikhsformed alliances with or waged war on one another, it wasa question
of relations between equals. But the existence of the community became
apparent when its independence was threatened, as is shown, in the viewof

Mauritania, by the concerted effort made by the tribes throughout the
Shinguitti country to resist French penetration.

137. At the same time, Mauritania lays emphasis on the special
characteristics of the Saharan area and thenomadic existence of many of the

tribes which have already been referred to in this Opinion. Life in the arid
areas of the Shinguitti country, it observes, required the continuous quest for
suitable pastures and water-holes; and each tribe had a well-defined
migration area with established migration routes determined by the location60 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

ment des points d'eau, des cimetières,des terrains cultivéset des pâturages.
Elle fait encore observer que les Puissances coloniales, en traçant les fron-
tières,n'ont tenu aucun compte des facteurs humains et en particulier des
territoires des tribus ou de leurs parcoursdenomadisation qui ont étécoupés
en deux ou trois tronçons par ces frontières artificielles. Les tribus se sont

trouvées néanmoinsdans la nécessitéde poursuivre leurs migrations tradi-
tionnelles àtraversle paychinguittien,aujourd'h uinsnlgerriéire
de la République islamiquede Mauritanie et le Sahara occidental. Certaines
familles, ainsi que leurs propriétés,ont étédiviséesde part et d'autre de la
frontièreartificielle.estarrivéainsiquedespuits,desterres et descimetières

du Rio de Oro appartiennent à des tribus mauritaniennes et que des
palmeraiesetdespoints d'eau situésdans cequi estmaintenant la République
islamique de Mauritanie soient la propriétéde tribus du Sahara occidental.
Selonla Mauritanie, cettenécessitéde la viedans la régiona étéreconnuepar
l'Espagne et la France qui ont conclu en 1934un arrangement administratif
pour qu'il ne soit pas fait obstacle au nomadisme des tribus.

138. Si l'on croyait devoir recourir à une classification, la Mauritanie
suggèrequelesconcepts de nation etdepeupleseraient lesplus adéquatspour
expliquerla situation du peuplechinguittien au moment de lacolonisation.
son avis, ce sont ces termesqui décriraient le mieux un ensembleprésentant,
malgré sa diversité politique,les caractères d'une nation indépendante, d'un
peuple forméde tribus, confédérationsdetribus, émirats qui,conjointement,

exerçaient une CO-souverainetésur le pays chinguittien.

139. Pour ce qui est des liens juridiques entre le Sahara occidental et
l'ensemblemauritanien, la Mauritanie soutient la thèsesuivante:au moment

de la colonisation espagnole, l'ensemble mauritanien s'étendait du fleuve
Sénégalà l'oued Sakiet El Hamra. Cela étant, la partie des territoires
actuellement sous administration espagnole située au sud de l'oued Sakiet
El Hamra était~artie intégwante de l'ensemble mauritanien ».La relation
juridique entre la partie sous administration espagnole et l'ensemblemaurita-
nien était donc « une simple relation d'inclusion». A l'époque,le Bilad

Chinguiti était un ensemble uni par des liens historiques, religieux, linguis-
tiques, sociaux, culturels et juridiques formant une communauté ayant sa
propre cohésion. En revanche, les territoires occupés par l'Espagne ne
formaient aucuneentitépropre et n'avaient aucune identité.La partie située
au sud de l'ouedSakiet El Hamra faisaitjuridiquement partie de I'ensemble
mauritanien. Cette partie et leterritoire actuel de la République islamiquede

Mauritanie constituent les parties indissociables de l'ensemble maurita-
nien ».

140. Sur cesbases, la Mauritanie priela Courdedire qu'au «moment de la
colonisation par l'Espagne, la partie du Sahara actuellement sous adminis-
tration espagnole avait desliensjuridiques avec l'ensemblemauritanien En WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 60

of water-holes, burial grounds, cultivated areas and pastures. The colonial
Powers, it further observes, in drawing frontiers took no account of these

human factors and in particular of the tribal territories and migration routes,
whichwere,as a result,bisected and eventrisected by those artificialfrontiers.
Nevertheless, the tribes of necessity continued to make their traditional
migrations, traversing the Shinguitti country comprised within the territory
of the present-day Islamic Republic of Mauritania and Western Sahara. The
same families and their properties were to be found on either side of the

artificialfrontier. Some wells,lands and burial grounds of the Rio de Oro, for
example, belonged to Mauritanian tribes, while watering places and palm
oasesin what isnow part of the Islamic Republic weretheproperties of tribes
of Western Sahara. These facts of life in the region, it points out, were
recognizedby France and Spain, which,in 1934,concluded an administrative

agreement to prevent any obstacles to the nomadic existence of the tribes.

138. If it is thought necessary to have recourse to verbal classifications,
Mauritania suggeststhat the concepts of "nation" and of "people" would be
the most appropriate to explain the position of the Shinguitti people at the
time of colonization; they wouldmost nearly describe an entity which despite

its political diversity bore the characteristics of an independent nation, a
people formed of tribes, confederations and emirates jointly exercising
CO-sovereigntyover the Shinguitti country.

139. As to the legal ties between Western Sahara and the Mauritanian
entity, the views of Mauritania are as follows: At the time of Spanish
colonization, the Mauritanian entity extended from the Senegal river to the
Wad Sakiet El Hamra. That being so, the part of the territories now under
Spanish administration which lie "to the south of the Wad Sakiet El Hamra

was an integral part of the Mauritanian entity". The legal relation between
the part under Spanish administration and the Mauritanian entity was,
therefore, "thesimple one of inclusion". At that time,theBilad Shinguitti was
an entity united by historical, religious, linguistic, social, cultural and legal
ties, and it formed a community having its own cohesion. The territories

occupied by Spain, on the otherhand, did not form an entity of their own and
did not have any identity. The part to the south of the Wad Sakiet El Hamra
was, legally speaking, part of the Mauritanian entity. That part and the
present territory of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania together constitute
"the indissociable parts of the Mauritanian entity".

140. Inthe light of theforegoing, Mauritania asksthe Court to findthat "at
the time of colonization by Spain the part of the Sahara now under Spanish
administration did have legal ties with the Mauritanian entity". At the same61 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AV1SCONSULTATIF)

mêmetemps, elle considère que là où s'arrêtaitl'ensemble mauritanien
commençait le Royaume du Maroc. Elleprécisequela constatation qu'elle
demande selimite à la partiedu Sahara occidental situéeau sudde la Sakiet
El Hamra, sous réservede certains entrecroisementsdes liensjuridiques de
I'ensemblemauritanien et deceuxdu Maroc, là seulementoù lesparcours de
nomadisation de leurstribus respectivesseconfondent.

141. L'Espagne estimeque les thèsesde la Mauritanie se heurtent à un
certain nombre d'obstacles. A son avis, le Bilad Chinguiti ou ensemble
chinguittiennecoïncidenullement aveccequ'onappellel'ensemblemaurita-
nien. Dans son acception la plus large, le Bilad Chinguiti vise l'aire d'une
culture musulmane, un foyer culturel et religieux qui eut un certain rayon-
nement jusqu'au XVIe siècle. Mais,selon l'Espagne, il est impossibled'ad-
mettre qu'un phénomène culturel, limitédans l'espaceet dans le temps,soit
identique à un prétendu ensemble qui serait essentiellement d'ordre géo-
graphique et dont leslimitesseraient plus larges.ne faut pas confondre le
rayonnement religieuxetcultureldelavilledeChinguitietsarenomméedans
le monde musulman avec l'hégémonie politique de I'émiratdel'Adrar qui
engloba la citédans seslimites,quand il apparut auVIIIesiècle.

142. De l'avis de l'Espagne, non seulement l'idéed'ensemble exprime
l'appartenance, maiselleimpliqueenoutre I'idéequelesélémentsinclus dans
l'ensemblesont homogènes.Or l'ensemblemauritanien serait forméd'élé-
ments hétérogènesd , ont certains seraient de simples tribus et d'autres
auraient atteint un degréplus complexe d'intégration, commeles émirats.
Quant à l'émiratdel'Adrarquiaurait étélenoyaudel'ensemblemauritanien,
l'Espagne soutientque c'était unerégiondistincte et indépendantedetoutes
les régionsavoisinantes,aussi bien du point de vuepolitique quedu point de
vue social et économique. L'émirat constituait,d'après elle, un noyau de
pouvoir autonome, distinct à la fois des autres émiratsdu sud et des tribus
nomades indépendantes dunord et de l'ouest. Desurcroît, au moment de la
colonisation du Sahara occidental, l'émiratconnaissait, selon l'Espagne, de
graves désordres internes et subissaitles attaques continuelles des émirats

voisins des Trarza et duagant; l'Espagnea dit de cette région qu'elleétait
plongéedans un état d'anarchie.
143. Uneautre difficultéseprésente,d'aprèsl'Espagne;c'estquelanotion
d'ensemble mauritanien n'est accompagnée par la preuve d'aucun lien
d'allégeanceentre lestribus habitant leterritoire du Sahara occidental et les
tribus mauritaniennes ou entre les tribus du territoire et l'émiratdear.
Loindesefondre etdedisparaître dans lecadre decequ'onappelleensemble
mauritanien, soutient l'Espagne, les tribus du Sahara occidental ont mené
leur viepropre, indépendamment desautrestribus sahariennes.Onsetrouve,
selonelle,faceà un manque presqueabsolu de preuvesquipuissentétayerla
thèse mauritanienne en dehors de simples données sociologiquessurla vie
nomade. WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 61

time, it takes the position that where the Mauritanian entity ended the
Kingdom of Morocco began. It also makes clear that the finding which it
requests is limited to thepart of Western Sahara to thesouth of the Sakiet El
Hamra, subject to someoverlapping between the legaltiesof the Mauritanian

entity and those of Morocco solelywhere they met,owing to the overlapping
of the nomadic routes of their respective tribes.

141. Spain considers that there are a number of obstacles in the way
of accepting the views of the Islamic Republic. The Bilad Shinguitti or
Shinguitti entity, it says, by no means coincides with what is called the
Mauritanian entity. In itsbroadest sense,the Bilad Shinguitti isthearea of an
Islamaic culture, and it is a cultural and religious centre which had a certain
influence up to the sixteenth century. Spain finds it impossible, however, to

accept that a cultural phenomenon, limited in time and space, could be
identical with an alleged entity of which the significance was mainly
geographical and which had wider limits: Shinguit's religiousand cultural
influence and its fame in the Islamic world is not to be confused with the
political hegemony of the Emirate of the Adrar which, when it came into
being in the eighteenth century, included the town of Shinguit in itsrders.

142. Again, inthe viewof Spain,the ideaof an entity must expressnot only
a belonging but alsotheidea that thecomponentparts are homogeneous. The
Mauritanian entity, however, is said to have been formed of heterogeneous
components, some being mere tribes and others having a more complex
degree of integration, such as an emirate. As to the Emirate of the Adrar,

which is claimed to have been the nucleus of the Mauritanian entity, Spain
maintains that it was a region distinct and independent from al1 those
surrounding it, politically, socially and economically. Spain considers it to
have constituted a centre of autonomous power distinct both from the other
emirates inthe south and fromtheindependent nomad tribes in thenorth and
West. Furthermore, at the period of colonization of Western Sahara, this

emirate, according to Spain, wasundergoing grave interna1troubles and also
being harassed by the neighbouring Emirates of the Trarza and the Tagant,
and Spain describes the region as having then been in a state of anarchy.

143. Another difficulty, according to Spain, is that the concept of a
Mauritanian entity is not accompanied by proof of any tie of allegiance

between the tribes inhabiting the territory of Western Sahara and the
Mauritanian tribes or between the tribes of the territory and the Emirate of
the Adrar. Far from merging into or disappearing within the framework of
the so-called Mauritanian entity, Spain maintains, the tribes of Western
Sahara led their own life independently of the other Saharan tribes. In its

view,there isan almost totallack ofevidence whichmight givesupport to the
Mauritanian argument over and above the mere sociological facts about
nomadic life.62 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

144. Quant aux accords conclus par les tribus indépendantes du Sahara
avec des explorateurs espagnols et avec la France, l'Espagne estime que ces
documents contredisent la thèse d'un ensemble mauritanien à l'intérieur
duquel les tribus du Sahara occidental auraient étéintégréesA. son avis, les
textes des deux traités signésà Idjil le 12 juillet 1886l'un avec les tribus
indépendanteset l'autre avecI'émirsont àcet égard concluants. Lepremier a

été conclu avecles tribus habitant la zone comprise entre l'Atlantique et le
versant occidental de l'Adrar, qui ont cédéà l'Espagne «tous les territoires
compris entre la côte des possessions espagnoles de l'Atlantique du cap
Bojador au cap Blanc et la limite occidentale de l'Adrar »;le second traité,
conclu avec l'émir,«reconnaît la souveraineté espagnolesurtout leterritoire
de l'Adrar Tmar ». De l'avis de l'Espagne, l'existence de ces deux traités

séparésprouvenon seulementla totaleindépendance des tribus etde l'émirat
de l'Adrar mais encorel'indépendancedechacun par rapport aux autres;elle
prouve aussi que I'émira peut-être exercé une influencesur ces tribus mais
jamais une autoritépolitique. De mêmeI,'indépendancedes tribus entre elles
ressort, selon l'Espagne, de la signature, par une seuletribu, du traitéde
conclu avec l'explorateur Bonelli. De plus, d'autres élémentsde l'ensemble,

les émiratsdes Brakna, des Trarza et du Tagant et les tribus du Hodh, ont
signéau cours du XIXe siècle toute une sériede traités avec la France.
L'Espagne estimedonc difficilede discerner en quoi résidela cohésionde ce
que l'on présente commel'ensemblechinguittien.
145. L'Espagne rejette en outre l'idéeliéeà la notion d'ensemble maurita-
nien invoquée par la Mauritanie, selon laquelle le territoire placé sous

administration espagnole ne constituait pas un ensemble distinct et n'avait
pas d'identité. Elle soutient que l'actuel territoire du Sahara occidental
constituait l'assise d'un peuple saharien au caractère propre et bien défini,
composéde tribus autonomes et indépendantes de toute autorité extérieure,
que ce peuple habitait une région assez biendélimitéeet qu'il avait élaboré
une organisation et un systèmede vieen commun fondéssur une conscience

collective et une solidarité mutuelle.Au Sahara occidental, dit l'Espagne, la
population et les auteurs font une nette distinction entre leur pays, celui des
nomades, et les pays avoisinants, où la vie est sédentaire, comme ceux de
Chinguiti, de Tichit et de Tombouctou. La terre des sédentaires coïncide
sensiblementau nord avec lesfrontières historiques du Maroc et au sud avec
l'émiratde l'Adrar Tmar. Selon l'Espagne, il y avait donc au moment de la
colonisation un peuplesahraoui, douédecohésionet différencié par rapport

aux émirats mauritaniens; ce peuple ne se considérait nullement comme une
partie du Bilad Chinguiti ou ensemblemauritanien.

146. La thèsemauritanienne seheurte aussi,d'aprèsl'Espagne, àune autre
difficultéjuridique: la République islamique de Mauritanie ne saurait en effet
être considéréecommle e successeurimmédiat du prétendu ensemblemauri-

tanien historique, car la notion de Mauritanie est néeen 1904,a un moment
où leterritoire du Sahara occidental avait déjà,selonl'Espagne, uneexistence
établieen fait et en droit. WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 62

144. As to the agreements concluded by the independent tribes of the
Sahara with Spanish explorers and with France, Spain considers those
documents to run counter to the thesis that there was a "Mauritanian entitv"

in which tribes of Western Sahara were integrated. It regards the texts of the
two treatiessigned a 'Ijilon 12July 1886,one with the independent tribes and
the other withthe Emir, as decisiveon thispoint. The firstwasconcluded with
the tribes living in the area between the Atlantic and the western slopes of the
Adrar, who ceded to Spain "al1territories between the Coastof the Spanish

possessions of theAtlantic between Cape Bojador and Cabo Blanco and the
western boundary of the Adrar"; the second treaty was concluded with the
Emir and "recognizes Spanish sovereignty over the whole territory of the
Adrar at-Tmarr". Theexistence of thesetwo separate treaties, in Spain'sview,
evidences not only the total independence of those tribes and of the Emirate,

but alsotheir independence of each other; and it further proves that the Emir
may haveexertedinfluence but never political authority overthose tribes.The
independence of the tribes as between themselves is held by Spain to be also
shown by the signature of the 1884treaty by one tribe alone w%hthe explorer
Bonelli.Furthermore, otherparticipants in this allegedentity, the Emirates of
the Brakna, Trarza and Tagant and thetribes of theHodh, signed with France

a long series of treaties throughout the nineteenth century. Spain therefore
finds it difficult to appreciatethe coherence of the alleged Shinguittientity.

145. Furthermore Spain rejects the proposition, bound up with the
concept of the Mauritanian entity advanced by Mauritania,that the territory

under Spanish administration did not itself form an entity or possess an
identity of its own. It considers that what is the present territory of Western
Sahara was the foundation of a Saharan people with its own well-defined
character, made up of autonomous tribes, independent of any external
authority; and that this people lived in a fairly well-defined area and had
developed an organization and a system of life in common, on the basis of

collectiveself-awareness and mutual solidarity. In Western Sahara, it says, a
clear distinction was made by the population and in literature between their
own country, thecountry of the nomads, and other neighbouring countries of
a sedentary way of life, such as Shinguitti,Tishit and Timbuktu. The land of
the settled people coincided to a large extent, in the north, with the historic
frontiers of Morocco and, in the south, with the Emirate of the Adrar

at-Tmarr. There wasthus, according to Spain, a Sahrawipeople at thetime of
colonization, coherent and distinct from the Mauritanian emirates; and this
people in no way regarded itselfaspart of theBilad Shinguitti or Mauritanian
entity.
146. Another legal difficulty, according to Spain, is that the Islamic

Republic could not be regarded as the direct successor to the alleged
historical Mauritanian entity; for the notion of Mauritania was born in 1904
at a time whenthe territory of Western Sahara issaid by Spain already to have
had an existence well established in fact and in law. 63 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVIS CONSULTATIF)
147. Sefondant sur lesargumentsquiprécèdent,l'Espagne soutientqu'au
moment dela colonisation espagnoleiln'existaitpas deliensjuridiques entre

leterritoire du Sahara occidental et l'ensemblemauritanien.

148. Dans l'affaire de la Réparation des dommages subis au servicedes
Nations'unies,la Cour adéclaré« : Lessujets de droit, dans un systèmejuri-
dique, ne sont pas nécessairementidentiquesquant à leurnature ou àI'éten-
due de leurs droits, et leur nature dépend des besoinsde la communauté ))
(C.I.J. Recueil1949, p.178). Dans son examen des thèsesde la Mauritanie
sur la naturejuridique du Bilad Chinguitiou ensemblemauritanien, la Cour
tient pleinementcompte de cetteobservation et descaractéristiquespropres
dela régionetdespopulations sahariennes quelaprésenteespèceconcerne. Il

faut bien cependant appliquer un critèrepour déterminersi, dans un cas
donné, ona affaire ou non en droit àcequi estjuridiquement une entité.En
outre,laCournoteque, dans l'affairedela Réparationdesdommagessubisau
servicedes Nations Unies, lecritèreutilisépar ellea consistéàdéterminersi
I'Organisation des Nations Unies - l'entité en caus- setrouvait dans une
situation«telle qu'elleait vis-à-visde ses Membres des droits dont elle ait
qualitépour leur demander le respect » (ibid., p178). Certes, dans l'avis
consultatif rendu en l'espèce, lecritère a joué dans un contexte un peu
particulier.Néanmoins,telestbienlecritèreessentiel à appliquer lorsqu'ilest
prétenduqu'un groupe, qu'ilsoit composé d'Etats, de tribus ou d'individus,
estuneentitéjuridique distinctedesesmembres.
149. Dans la présente affaire,les renseignements dont la Cour dispose
montrent qu'au momentdela colonisation espagnole ilexistaitdenombreux

liensd'ordre racial, linguistique,religieux,culturel et économique entre des
tribus etémiratsdont lespopulations habitaient la régionsaharienne qui fait
aujourd'hui partie du territoire du Sahara occidental et de la République
islamique de Mauritanie. Cependant ces renseignements révèlent aussi
l'indépendance des émirats etde nombre de ces tribus les uns à l'égard
des autres et, malgré certaines formes d'activité commune,l'absence
d'institutions ou d'organes,mêmeréduits au minimum,qui leur auraient été
communs. La Cour ne peut donc conclure que leséléments en sa possession
permettent de considérerque les émirats et tribus existant dans la région
constituaient, suivant une autre expression utiliséepar la Cour dans l'affaire
de la Réparation des dommagessubis au servicedes Nations Unies,«une
entitécapable d'être bénéficiaired'obligation iscombant à ses membres»

(ibid., p.178).Que l'on définisse l'ensemblemauritanien comme le Bilad
Chinguiti, ou comme la nation chinguittienne ainsi que la Mauritanie le
suggère,ou encore comme une forme de ligue ou d'association, la difficulté
demeure qu'il n'avait pas le caractère d'une personne ou d'une entité
juridique distinctedesdiversémiratsettribusqui leconstituaient. On ne peut
donc accepter la thèsesuivant laquelle le il adChinguiti aurait été une
«entité»ou un «ensemble » mauritanien jouissant d'une certaine forme de
souverainetéauSahara occidental. WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 63
147. On thebasis of the foregoingconsiderations, Spain maintains that at
thetimeofcolonization bySpainthere werenolegaltiesbetweentheterritory
of WesternSahara and the Mauritanian entity.

* *

148. In the caseconcerning Reparationfor InjuriesSufered inthe Service
ofthe UnitedNations, the Court observed: "The subjects of law in any legal
system are not necessarily identical in their nature or in thetent of their
rights, and their naturedepends upon the needs of the community" (Z.C.J.
Reports 1949,p. 178).Inexaminingthepropositionsof Mauritania regarding
the legalnature ofthe BiladShinguitti orMauritanian entity,theCourt gives
full weightboth to that observation and to the specialcharacteristics of the
Saharan region and peoples with which the present proceedings are
concerned. Somecriterion has, however,to be employedto determinein any
particular case whether whatconfronts the lawisor isnot legallyan "entity".
The Court, moreover,notes that in the Reparationcasethe criterion whichit
applied wasto enquire whetherthe United Nations Organization - theentity
involved - wasin "such a position that it possesses,in regard to its Members,
rights which itis entitled to ask them to respect"bid.).In that Opinion, no
doubt, thecriterion wasapplied in asomewhatspecialcontext. Nevertheless,
it expressesthe essential test wherea group, whether composed of States, of
tribes or of individuals, is claimed to be a legal entity distinct from its
members.

149. Inthepresent case,theinformation beforetheCourt disclosesthat,at
the time of the Spanish colonization, there existed many ties of a racial,
linguistic,religious,cultural and economicnature between varioustribesand
emirateswhosepeoplesdweltintheSaharan regionwhichtoday iscomprised
within the Territory of Western Sahara and the Islamic Republic of
Mauritania. It also discloses,however,the independence of theemirates and
many of the tribes in relation to one another and, despite some forms of
common activity, the absence among them of any common institutions or
organs,evenofa quiteminimalcharacter.Accordingly,theCourt isunableto
find that the information before it provides any basis for considering the
emiratesand tribeswhichexistedinthe regionto haveconstituted, inanother
phrase used by the Court in the Reparationcase, "an entity capable of
availing itselfof obligations incumbent upon its Members" (ibid.).Whether
theMauritanian entity isdescribedasthe Bilad Shinguitti,or astheShinguitti
"nation", as Mauritania suggests,or as some form of league or association,
the difficultyremains that it did not have the character of a personality or
corporate entitydistinctfromthe severalemiratesand tribeswhichcomposed
it.The proposition, therefore, that the Bilad Shinguittishould be considered
as having been a Mauritanian "entity" enjoyingsome formof sovereigntyin
Western Sahara isnot one that can be sustained. WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 64

150. In the light of the above considerations, the Court must conclude that
at the time of colonization by Spain there didnot exist between theterritory

of Western Sahara and the Mauritanian entity any tie of sovereignty, or of
allegiance of tribes, or of "simple inclusion" in thesame legal entity.

151. Thisconclusion does not, however,mean thatthe reply to Question II
should necessarily be that at the time of colonization by Spain no legal tiesat
al1 existed between the territory of Western Sahara and the Mauritanian
entity. The languageemployed by the General Assembly inQuestion IIdoes
not appear to theCourt to confinethe question exclusivelyto those legal ties

which imply territorial sovereignty. On thecontrary, the useof the expression
"legal ties" in conjunction with "Mauritanian entity" indicates that Question
IIenvisages the possibility of other ties of a legal character. To confine the
question to ties of sovereignty would, moreover, be to ignore the special
characteristics of the Saharan region and peoples to whichreference has been
made in paragraphs 87 and 88 above, and also to disregard the possible

relevance of other legal ties to the various procedures concerned in the
decolonization process.

152. Theinformation before theCourt makes itclear that the nomadism of

the great rnajority of the peoples of Western Sahara at the time of its
colonization gave rise to certain ties of a legal character between the tribes of
the territory and those of neighbouring regions of the Bilad Shinguitti. The
migration routes of almost al1the nomadic tribes of Western Sahara, the
Court was informed. crossed what wereto become the colonial frontiers and
traversed, inter alia,substantial areas of what is today the territory of the

Islamic Republic of Mauritania. The tribes, in their migrations, had grazing
pastures, cultivated lands, and wells or water-holes in both territories, and
their burial grounds in one or other territory. These basic elements of the
nomads' way of life, as stated earlier in this Opinion, were in some measure
the subject of tribal rights, and their use was in general regulated by customs.

Furthermore, therelations between al1thetribes of the region in such matters
as inter-tribal clashes and the settlement of disputes were also governed by a
body of inter-tribal custom. Beforethe timeof Western Sahara's colonization
by Spain, those legal tiesneither hadnor couldhaveany other source than the
usages of the tribes themselves or Koranic law. Accordingly, although the
Bilad Shinguitti has not been shown to have existed as a legal entity, the

nomadic peoples of theShinguitticountry should, in the viewof the Court,be
considered as having in the relevant period possessed rights,includingsome
rights relating to the lands through which they migrated. These rights, the
Court concludes, constituted legal ties between the territory of Western
Sahara and the "Mauritanian entity", this expression being taken to denote65 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

ces droits constituaient des liens juridiques entre le territoire du Sahara
occidental et l'ensemble mauritanien, étant entendu que cette expression
désigne les diverses tribus vivant sur les territoires du Bilad Chinguiti

aujourd'hui englobés dans la République islamique de Mauritanie. Il
s'agissaitde liensqui ne connaissaient pas de frontièreentre les territoires et
qui étaient indispensables au maintien mêmede la vie dans la région.

153. Pendant la procédure orale, le Maroc et la Mauritanie ont mis
l'accent sur lechevauchementdes liensjuridiques que l'un et l'autre auraient
eusavecleSahara occidental au moment de sa colonisation. Bienque,surdes
points importants, la Cour ne partage pas l'opinion des deux Etats intéressés
sur la nature de ces liens, elle est cependant d'avis que l'entrecroisement des

liens en cause entre d'une part le territoire et d'autre part le Maroc et
I'ensemblemauritanien, telque celui-ciestdéfiniparla Cour, est àprendre en
considérationpour la réponseàla question II.La Cour estime en effet qu'ily
a là un élémentimportant pour apprécier l'étendue etles implications des
liens.
154. La position du ~arob et celle de la Mauritanie paraissent avoir

sensiblementévoluédepuis l'époque où, àl'organisation des Nations Unies,
ces deux Etats ont émispour la première fois leurs prétentions à des liens
spéciaux avec le Sahara occidental. Il suffira, aux fins du présent avis
consultatif, de prendre acte de leurs vues telles qu'ellesont été formuléeesn
dernier lieu devant la Cour.
155. Le Maroc a exposéses vuesde la manière suivante:

« Le Maroc affirme l'exercicede la souveraineté mais il ne nie point,
pour autant, que des liensjuridiques d'une autre nature, mais non moins
essentiels eu égard à la question poséeà la Cour et aux modes de vie

politique dans la région intéresséeau moment de la colonisation
espagnole, puissent êtreaffirméspar la Mauritanie.
...............................

la souveraineté invoquéepar le Maroc et ...lesliensjuridiques invoqués
par la Mauritanie se sont exercéssur des tribus nomades et ont eu un
premier impact sur les hommes. Ceux-ci, certes, ont dessinédans leurs
parcours un ensembleterritorial mais, en raison mêmede la nature des
relations entre l'homme et le sol, des chevauchements géographiques
sont inévitables.

Quand le Maroc fait état de dahirs adressés à des destinations
géographiques allant jusqu'au cap Blanc, il invoque des documents
attestant l'allégeancede tribus se trouvant àun moment donnédans un
de leurs lieux de nomadisation. Mais il n'entend pas, par là même,
soutenir qu'au point de vue de destination du dahir l'appartenance à
l'ensemblemauritanien n'était pasprépondérante. WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) .65

thevarioustribeslivingintheterritories ofthe BiladShinguittiwhicharenow
comprised within the Islamic Republic of Mauritania. They were ties which
knew no frontier between the territories and were vital to the very
maintenance of lifein the region.

153. In the oral proceedings,Morocco and Mauritania both laid stresson
the overlapping character of the respective legal ties which they claim
WesternSaharato havehad withthem at the timeof colonization.Although

theviewoftheCourtasto thenature of thosetiesdiffersinimportant respects
from those of the two Statesconcerned, the Court is of the opinion that the
overlapping character of the ties of the territory with Morocco and the
"Mauritanian entity", as defined by the Court, calls for consideration in
connection withQuestion IIThisisbecausetheoverlappingcharacter ofthe
ties appears to the Court to be a significant element in appreciating their
scope and implications.
154. The views of Morocco and Mauritania appear to have evolved
considerably since their respective claims to special links with Western
Sahara werefirstraisedin the United Nations. It suffices,for the purposes of
this Opinion, to note their viewsas finallyformulated before the Court.

155. Morocco'sviews wereexplained as follows:

"Morocco assertsthe exerciseof its sovereignty,but it does not deny,
in so doing, that legal ties of another nature, no less essential having
regardtothequestionput totheCourt and totheformsofpoliticallifein
the region concerned at the time of Spanish colonization, may be
asserted by Mauritania. '
...............................

the sovereignty invoked by Morocco and the legal ties invoked by
Mauritania wereexercisedon nomadic tribes and had their firstimpact
on human beings. Of course,these human beings traced in their travels
the outline of a territorial entity but,cause of the very nature of the
relationships between man and the land, some geographical over-
lappings wereinevitable.
When Morocco cites dahirs addressed to geographical destinations
extending to Cabo Blanco, it is relying on documents attesting the
allegianceof tribes findingthemselvesat given timesat certain points in

their nomadic itineraries. But itdoes not mean thereby to claim that,
viewedfrom the standpoint of thedestination of the dahir, thestrongest
link wasnot with the Mauritanian entity.66 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)
En sens inversed'ailleurs,le Maroc ne considère pasque la mention
géographiquepar la Mauritanie despoints extrêmes dela nomadisation

des tribus mauritaniennes exclut la prépondérancede la souveraineté
marocaine dans ces régions.
En définitive,il existe un Nord et un Sudjuxtaposant dans l'espace
des liens juridiques du Sahara occidental avec le Maroc et avec la
Mauritanie. »
Développant cette explication,leMaroc a dit:

alorsque le Maroc évoquele cap Blanc et Villa Cisneros dans des
développementsd'ordre générali,l n'entend pas par là mêmesoutenir
quesa souverainetés'exerçaitsur cesrégionsau momentde la colonisa-
tion espagnole. Ces régionsfaisaient, en effet, partie intégrante de
l'ensemblemauritanien à l'époqueconsidérée,ensembledont la Répu-
bliqueislamique de Mauritanie est leseulsuccesseurB.

156. La Mauritanie a exposéses vuesde la manière suivante:

«les Gouvernements de la République islamiquede Mauritanie et du
Royaumedu Maroc reconnaissent qu'ilya un Nord relevantdu Maroc,
un Sud relevantde la Mauritanie etquedeschevauchementsexistentdu
fait desparcours de nomadisation du Nord et du Sud qui secroisent.Il
en résultedonc qu'il n'y a pas de no man's landentre l'influencedu
Maroc et cellede l'ensemblemauritanien ..»

« Leszones de chevauchement dont il a été question devant la Cour
impliquaientla superposition de I'ensemblemauritanien, de l'ensemble
chinguittien et du Royaume du Maroc seulement là ou ils se ren-
contraient.
C'est ainsi que la mention du cap Blanc et de Villa Cisneros par le
Maroc nesaurait signifierquecesrégionssetrouvaient,au moment dela
colonisation,sous la souverainetémarocaine,comme[ilaétér]econnu ...
le 25juill...De mêmet,elle ou telle nomadisation mauritanienne dans

la régiondelaSakiet ElHamra nesaurait constituerunecontestation de
l'appartenance de cette région auRoyaume du Maroc qui, aux yeuxdu
Gouvernementmauritanien, nes'arrêtait pasauxlimitesdu Makhzen. »

157. Il convient d'ajouter que le Maroc et la Mauritanie ont tous deux
souligné que le chevauchement ne laissait subsister aucun «vide géo-
graphique », aucun no man's landentre les régions où existaientdes liens
entre chacun d'eux etleSahara occidental.

158. La Cour, comme on l'a vu, admet que la question II n'envisage
aucune formede délimitation territorialequ'il luiincomberait d'effectuer.II WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 66

Conversely, Morocco does not consider that geographical reference
by Mauritania to the outer limits of the nomadic itineraries of
Mauritanian tribesrulesoutthepredominance ofMoroccan sovereignty
in thoseareas.
In short, there isa north and there isa south whichjuxtapose in space
the legal tiesof Western Sahara with Morocco and with Mauritania."

Amplifyingthis explanation, Morocco said:
"...when Morocco refersto Cabo Blanco and VillaCisneros in stating
arguments of ageneralcharacter, it isnot intending thereby to maintain
that itssovereigntyextended overthoseregionsatthetimeoftheSpanish
colonization; forattheperiod under consideration thoseregionswerean
integral part of the Mauritanian entity,to whichthe IslamicRepublicof
Mauritania isthe solesuccessor."

156. The viewsof Mauritania wereexplained as follows:

"...the Governments of the Islamic Republic of Mauritania and of the
Kingdom of Morocco recognize that there is a north appertaining to
Morocco, a south appertaining to Mauritania and that there are some
overlappings as a result of the intersection of the nomadic routes from
the north and from the south. Asa result,therefore,there isno no-man's
land between the influence of Morocco and that of the Mauritanian
entity..."
"The areas of overlap which have been referred to before the Court
implied the superimposition of the Mauritanian entity, the Shinguitti
entity, and theKingdom of Morocco,solely where theymet.

Thus the mention of Cabo Blanco and Villa Cisneros by Morocco
cannot signifythat thoseregionswere,at the timeofcolonization, under
Moroccan sovereignty,aswasconceded ...on 25July ...Similarly,the
fact that there may have been this or that Mauritanian nomadic
migration in the region of the Sakiet El Hamra cannot be regarded as
implying any dispute as to the fact that that region appertains to
the Kingdom of Morocco, which, in the view of the Mauritanian
Government, did not end at the limits of the Makhzen."
157. It has to be added that Morocco and Mauritania both emphasized
that, in their-view, the overlapping left "no geographical void"-no
"no-man's land" - between their respectiveties with Western Sahara.

158. The Court, as has already been indicated, concurs in the view that
Question II does not envisage any form of territorial delimitation by the67 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

est non moins évidentque lesconclusions auxquelles la Cour est parvenue au
sujet des liens qui existaient au moment de la colonisation entre le Sahara
occidental, le Royaume du Maroc ou l'ensemblemauritanien, tel que celui-ci

a étédéfini plushaut, l'amènent à constater en outre que ces liens s'entre-
croisaient dans une certaine mesure. 11n'en reste pas moins que les con-
clusions de la Cour sur la nature des liens juridiques entre le territoire et
respectivement le Royaume du Maroc et l'ensemble mauritanien diffèrent
sensiblement des opinions émises à cet égard par le Maroc et par la
Mauritanie. De l'avis de la Cour, ces liens n'impliquaient ni souveraineté

territoriale, niCO-souveraineté,ni inclusion territoriale dans une entité
juridique. II en découleque le chevauchement géographique » évoquépar
les deux Etats n'a pas,aux yeux de la Cour, le caractère que lui prêtentles
déclarationsprécitées.
159. Le chevauchement s'explique simplement par la localisation géo-
graphique des itinéraires de migration des tribus nomades; le fait que ces

itinérairessecroisaient etserecouvraient en partieétaitun élémentcrucialde
la situation complexe régnant au Sahara occidental a l'époque.Parler de
Nord et de Sud et de chevauchements excluant tout vide intermédiaire ne
rend donc pas compte de la complexitéréellede cette situation, complexité
qu'aggravait en fait l'indépendance de certaines des tribus nomades, en
particulier celle des Regueibat, I'une des plus importantes du Sahara occi-
dental. Bien qu'ils aient pu avoir certains liens avec les tribus du Bilad

Chingiiiti, les Regueibat étaient un groupement essentiellement autonome et
indépendant dans la région considérée.Ce serait minimiser d'ailleurs la
complexité des relations juridiques existant à l'époque entre le Sahara
occidentalet lesterritoires voisinssil'onomettait de rappeler que lesparcours
de nomadisation de certaines tribus traversaient aussi une partie de ce qui
constitue à présentle territoire algérien.

160. La Cour estime en conséquenceque la conclusion à tirer du chevau-
chement géographique n'est pas qu'il indique l'existence d'un Nord et d'un
Sudsans noman's land intermédiaire mais plutôt qu'iltraduit la difficultéde
démêlec re qu'étaientles diverses relations dans la régiondu Sahara occi-
dental au moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne.

161. Comme il est indiquéau paragraphe 70 du présentavis, l'Assemblée
généralea fait ressortir, dans la résolution3292 (XXIX), que le droit des
populations du Sahara occidental à l'autodétermination n'étaitni atteint ni

modifiépar la requête pouravis consultatif ou I'une quelconque des dis-
positions de cette résolution. II est également clair que, quand l'Assemblée
généraledemande dans la question II quels étaient les liens juridiques du
territoire du Sahara occidental avec le Royaume du Maroc et l'ensemble
mauritanien, elle s'adresse à la Cour pour connaître la nature de ces liens
juridiques. On doit interpréter cette question, ainsi que l'indique leara- WESTERNSAHARA (ADVISORYOPINION) 67

Court. It isalsoevident that theconclusionsreached by the Court concerning
the ties which existed between Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco
or the Mauritanian entity, as defined above, at the time of colonization lead

also to the conclusion that there was a certain overlapping of those ties. The
findings of the Court, however, regarding the nature of the legal ties of the
territory respectively with the Kingdom of Morocco and the Mauritanian
entity differ materially from the viewsadvanced in that respect by Morocco
and Mauritania. In the opinion of the Court those ties did not involve

territorial sovereignty or CO-sovereigntyor territorial inclusion in a legal
entity. In consequence,the"geographical overlapping" drawnattention to by
the two States had, in the Court's view, a different character from that
envisaged in the statements quoted above.

159. The overlapping arose simply from the geographical locations of the

migration routes of the nomadic tribes; and the intersection and overlapping
of those routes was a crucial element in the complex situation found in
Western Sahara at that time. To speak of a "north" and a "south" and an
overlapping with no void in between does not, therefore, reflect the true
complexity of that situation. This complexity was, indeed, increased by the
independence of some of the nomads, notably the Regheibat, a tribe

prominent in Western Sahara. The Regheibat, although they may have had
links with the tribes of the Bilad Shinguitti, were essentiallyan autonomous
and independent people in the region with which these proceedings are
concerned. Nor is the complexity of the legal relations of Western Sahara
with theneighbouring territories at that time fullydescribed unlessmention is

made of the fact that the nomadic routes of certain tribes passed also within
areas of what is present-day Algeria.

160. In the view of the Court, therefore, the significance of the
geographical overlapping is not that it indicates a "north" and a "south"
without a "no-man's land". Its significance is rather that it indicates the

difficulty of disentangling the various relationships existing in the Western
Sahara region at the time of colonization by Spain.

161. As already indicated in paragraph 70 of this Opinion, the General
Assembly has made it clear, in resolution 3292 (XXIX), that the right of the
population of Western Sahara to self-determination is not prejudiced or
affected by the present request for an advisory opinion, nor by any other
provision contained in that resolution. It is also clear that, when the General

Assembly asks in Question II what werethe legal tiesbetween the territory of
Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco and the Mauritanian entity, it
is addressing an enquiry to the Court as to the nature of these legal ties. This
question,as stated in paragraph 85above, must be understood as referring to68 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(AVISCONSULTATIF)

graphe 85 ci-dessus, comme se référantaux liensjuridiques qui pourraient
influer sur la politique àsuivre pour la décolonisationdu Sahara occidental.

En rédigeant saréponse,la Courne saurait oublier l'objeten vueduquel l'avis
est sollicité.Cet avis est requis pour aider l'Assembléegénéraleà définirla
politique de décolonisationqu'elleadoptera à l'avenir eten particulier pour
l'aider à se prononcer sur les thèses du Maroc et de la Mauritanie selon
lesquelles l'un et l'autre auraient eu avec le Sahara occidental des liens
juridiques mettant en jeu l'intégriterritoriale de leurs pays.

162. Les élémentset renseignements portésà la connaissance de la Cour
montrent I'existence, au moment de la colonisation espagnole, de liens
juridiques d'allégeanceentre lesultan du Maroc et certaines des tribus vivant
sur le territoire du Sahara occidental. Ils montrent égalementl'existence de
droits, y compris certains droits relatifs à la terre, qui constituaient des liens
juridiques entre l'ensemble mauritanien, au sens où la Cour l'entend, et'le

territoire du Sahara occidental. En revanche, la Cour conclut queleséléments
et renseignements portésà sa connaissance n'établissentI'existenced'aucun
lien de souveraineté territorialeentre leterritoire du Sahara occidental d'une
part,leRoyaume du Maroc ou l'ensemblemauritanien d'autre part. La Cour
n'a donc pas constaté I'existence de liens juridiques de natureà modifier

l'application de la résolution151(XV) quant à la décolonisationdu Sahara
occidental et en particulier l'application du principe d'autodétermination
grâce à l'expression libre et authentique de la volontédes populations du
territoire (voir paragraphes 54à 59ci-dessus).

163. Par ces motifs,

LACOUR D~CIDE,

En ce qui concerne la question 1,

par treize voix contre trois,

En ce qui concerne la question II,
par quatorze voix contre deux,

dedonner suite à la requêtepour avis consultatif;

LACOUR EST D'AVIS,

En cequi concerne la question 1,

à l'unanimité,

60 WESTERNSAHARA(ADVISORYOPINION) 68

such legal tiesasmay affect the policy to be followed in thedecolonization of
Western Sahara. In framing itsanswer,the Courtcannotbe unmindful of the

purpose for which its opinion is sought. Its answer is requested in order to
assisttheGeneral Assemblyto determine itsfuture decolonization policy and
in particular to pronounceon theclaims of Morocco and Mauritania to have
had legal ties with Western Sahara involving the territorial integrity of their
respectivecountries.

162. The materials and information presented to the Court show the
existence, at the time of Spanish colonization, of legal ties of allegiance
between the Sultan of Morocco and someof thetribesliving in theterritory of
Western Sahara. They equally show the existence of rights, including some
rights relating to the land, which constituted legal ties between the

Mauritanian entity, as understood by the Court, and the territory of Western
Sahara. On the other hand, the Court's conclusion is that the materials and
information presented to it do not establish any tie of territorial sovereignty
between theterritory of Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco or the
Mauritanian entity. Thus the Court hasnot found legaltiesofsuch anature as

might affect the application of resolution 1514(XV) in the decolonization of
Western Sahara and, in particular, of the principle of self-determination
through the free and genuine expression of the will of the peoples of the
Territory (cf. paragraphs 54-59above).

163. For these reasons,

THECOURT DECIDES,

with regard to Question 1,
by 13votes to 3,

and with regard to Question II,
by 14votes to 2,

to comply with the request for an advisory opinion;

with regard to Question 1,

unanimously,69 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (AVISCONSULTATIF)

que le Sahara occidental (Rio de Oro et Sakiet El Hamra) n'était pasun
territoire sans maître (terra nulliua su) moment de la colonisation par

l'Espagne;

En ce qui concerne la question II,

par quatorze voix contre deux,

que le territoire avait, avec le Royaume du Maroc, des liens juridiques
possédantles caractères indiqués auparagraphe 162du présentavis;

par quinze voix contre une,
que le territoire avait, avec l'ensemble mauritanien, des liens juridiques
possédantlescaractères indiqués auparagraphe 162du présentavis.

Fait en français et en anglais, le texte français faisant foi, au palais de la
Paix, à La Haye, le seize octobre mil neuf cent soixante-quinze, en deux
exemplaires, dont l'un restera déposé aux archivesde la Cour et dont l'autre
sera transmis au Secrétaire généradle l'organisation des Nations Unies.

Le Président,
(Signé) Manfred LACHS.

Le Greffier,

(Signé) S. AQUARONE.

M. GROS,juge, fait la déclaration suivante:

Telle que je l'entends, la requête pouravis consultatif pose à la Cour une
question précise,relativeunecertainecontroversejuridique, àlaquelle l'avis

consultatif donne uneréponsecomplexe;je n'aiétéd'accord avecla Courque
pour une partie de cette réponseque j'aurais souhaitéisoler du reste de la
partie dispositive de I'avis. Monanalyse des faits de la cause et des règlesde
l'interprétation qu'il convient de leur appliquer est différente des observa-
tions faites par la Cour etje crois nécessaired'exposer brièvementlesraisons

de mon approche des problèmes soulevés par l'étudede la requêtede
l'Assembléegénéraledont l'objet me paraît plus limitéque celui retenu dans
l'avisconsultatif.
1. Dans toute affaire contentieuse ou consultative, la première question
qui seposeaujuge est: quel estl'objetde lademande? En l'espèceilestapparu WESTERN SAHARA (ADVISORY OPINION) 69

that Western Sahara (Rio de Oro and Sakiet El Hamra) at the time of
colonization by Spain wasnota territorybelonging to no-one (terranulliu;)

with regard to Question II,

by 14votesto 2,
that there werelegalties betweenthisterritory and the Kingdom of Morocco
of the kinds indicated in paragraph 162of this Opinion;

by 15votesto 1,

that there werelegal tiesbetweenthisterritory and the Mauritanian entity of
the kinds indicated in paragraph 162of this Opinion.

Done in French and English, the French text being authoritative, at the
Peace Palace,The Hague, this sixteenth day of October, one thousand nine
hundred and seventy-five,in two copies, of which one willbe placed in the
archives of the Court and the other transmitted to the Secretary-General of
the United Nations.

(Signed) Manfred LACHS,

President.

(Signed S. AQUARONE,
Registrar.

Judge GROSmakes the followingdeclaration:

[Translation]

The request for advisory opinion, as1 understand it, puts to the Court a
precisequestion,relating toa certain legalcontroversy,to whichtheAdvisory
Opinion gives a complex reply; 1 was in agreement with the Court only in
respect of one part of that reply, whichwould have preferred to separate
from the rest ofthe operative part of the Opinion. Myanalysisof thefacts of
thecaseand the rulesofinterpretation whichshouldbeappliedtothemdiffers
fromtheobservationsmade bytheCourt, and 1consideritnecessarytogivea
brief account of the reasons for my approach to the problems raised by
examination oftheGeneralAssembly'srequest,the objectofwhichappearsto
meto be morelimited than that adopted in theAdvisoryOpinion.
1. In everycase,whether contentious or advisory,the firstquestion which
arisesfor a court is:What isbeing asked for? In the present case, right from 70 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(DÉCL. GROS)

dèsledébutde laprocédureque l'Assembléegénérale demandait àla Cour de
luidonner un avissurune questionjuridique précise,définiecomme résultant
d'une ((controverse juridique [qui] a surgi au cours des débatsau sujet du

statut dudit territoire au moment de sa colonisation par l'Espagne »;dans la
documentation fournie par le Secrétairegénéraslur la période1958-1974 ne
se trouve aucunetrace d'une questionjuridique particulièreentre le Maroc et
l'Espagneque,cependant, leprésentavisconsultatifa qualifiéede différend
juridique relatif au territo»r(ordonnance du 22 mai 1975 et paragraphe 9
de I'avis).J'ai donc votécontre I'ordonnance du22 mai qui, consacréeà la
composition de la Cour, a inévitablementtranché la question du caractère

juridique de I'avis, comme déjà en 1971 (Conséquencesjuridiques pour les
Etats de la présencecontinue de l'Afriquedu Sud en Namibie (Sud-Ouest
africain) nonobstant la résolution76 (1970) du Conseil de sécurité,C.I.J.
Recueil1971,p. 16et suiv.). Leproblèmequeje traiteraid'abord estceluide la
définitionde l'objet de la présentedemande d'avis, en dehors des consé-
quences de I'ordonnance sur la composition de la Cour (cf. sur ce point le
paragraphe 7 infra).Je considèrequ'iln'existepas de différen- puisque le

mot est employépar la Cour - entre le Maroc et l'Espagne, mais une
questionjuridique soulevéepar le Gouvernement du Maroc devant I'Assem-
bléegénéraleà , laquelle s'estassociée1974 seulement le Gouvernement de
la Mauritanie, s'analysant en une controversejuridique multilatérale dans un
débatsur lestatutfutur du territoire du Sahara occidental (désignédésormais
comme le Territoire). L'objet de cette question juridique est le suivant: le

Maroc est-il en droit de réclamer la réintégrationdu Territoire dans le
territoire national du Royaume du Maroc auquel il appartenait, selon cet
Etat, au moment de la colonisation espagnole? Telle est donc la question
juridique préciseà laquelle la Cour doit répondre et à celle-ci seulement, ce
qui m'amène à tenir les développements de I'avis consultatif sur d'autres
sujets comme dépourvusde rapport avec l'objet de la requête.
2. Iln'estpas nécessaire d'insisterlonguement sur lecaractèredu prétendu

différendentredeux Etatssur une tellequestion. La Cour devait examiner les
titres de l'Empire chérifienavant le moment de la colonisation espagnole,
mêmesi la date de 1884 n'était pasune date rigide. La preuve de la
souverainetéde l'Empirechérifien estnécessairementune preuveantérieureà
l'action du Gouvernement de l'Espagne et indépendante de cette action; la
réclamation étant fondée surle détachement d'une partie du territoire de

l'Empire entraîne la nécessitéde prouver l'appartenance antérieure au
territoire d'un Etat alors reconnu par la communauté des Etats. L'Espagne
peut, certes, avoir étéun témoinde la situation parmi d'autres, mais elle ne
peut pas être unepartie à un différendjuridique bilatéral qui a persist»
(par. 36 de I'avis)avec le Royaume du Maroc surdes faits et une situation de
droit advenus il y a quatre-vingt-dix ans. Pour qu'un différend existe
réellement entre deux Etats il faut, comme M. Morelli puis sir Gerald

Fitzmaurice l'ont exposé en l'affaire du Cameroun septentrional (C.I.J.
Recueil1963,p. 109)et en cellede I'avisd21 juin 1971(C.I.J. Recueil1971,
p.3 14),que: WESTERNSAHARA (DECL. GROS) 70

the beginning of the proceedings it wasapparent that the General Assembly

was asking theCourt to giveit an opinion on a precise legal question, defined
as springing from a "legal controversy [which]arose" during the discussion
"over thestatus of thesaid Territory at the time of its colonization by Spain";
in the documentation supplied by the Secretary-General concerning the
period 1958-1974there is no trace of any specific legal question between
Morocco and Spain, which however the present Advisory Opinion has

described as a "legal dispute... regarding the Territory" (Order of 22 May
1975and para. 9 of the Opinion). 1therefore voted against the Order of 22
May, which, while it was devoted to the composition of the Court, inevitably
settled the question of the legal nature of the Opinion, as had already
happened in 1971(Legal ConsequencesforStates oftheContinuedPresenceof

South Africa in Namibia (South West Africa) notwithstanding Security
Council Resolution 276 (1970),I.C.J. Reports 1971,pp. 16 K.) The problem 1
will deal with first is that of the definition of the object of the present request
for opinion, apart from the consequences of the Order on the composition of
the Court (cf. on this point para. 7 below). 1 consider that there is no
dispute - since that is the word used by the Court- between Morocco and

Spain, but a legal question raised by the Government of Morocco before the
General Assembly,with the support of the Mauritanian Government only in
1974,whichmaybe analysed as amultilateral legalcontroversy in adebateon
the future status of the territory of Western Sahara (hereinafter referred to as
the Territory). The subject of that legal question is as follows: is Morocco
entitled to claim reintegration of the Territory into the national territory of

the Kingdom of Morocco, to which itbelonged, according to Morocco, at the
time of colonization by Spain? Such is therefore the precise legal question,
and the sole question, to be answered by the Court; 1therefore regard the
reasoning of the Advisory Opinion on other subjects as unrelated to the
object of the request.

2. There is no need to dwell at length on the nature of the alleged dispute
between two Stateson such a question.The Court should examinethe titlesof
the Sherifian Empire prior to the time of coionization by Spain, even though
the date of 1884werenot a rigiddate.Proof of thesovereignty of the Sherifian
Empire isnecessarily a proof prior to the action of the Government of Spain,
and independent thereof; sincethe claim wasbased on thedetachment of part

of the territory of the Empire, it entails the need to prove prior appurtenance
to the territory of a State which wasthen recognized by the community of
States. Spain may of course have been one witness, among others, of the
situation, but it cannot be a party to a bilateral legal dispute which
"continued to subsist" (para. 36 of the Opinion) with the Kingdom of
Morocco over facts and a legal situation existing 90 years ago. For a dispute

really to exist between two States, it is necessary, as Judge Morelli, and
subsequently Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, have explained, in the Northern
Cameroons case(1.C.J.Reports 1963,p. 109),and subsequentlythecase of the
Advisory Opinion of 21June 1971(I.C.J. Reports 1971,p. 314),that:71 SAHARAOCCIDENTAL(DÉCL. GROS)

l'unedes parties [oulesparties] formule ou ait formulé,àpropos d'une
action, d'une omission ou d'un comportement présentsou passésde
l'autre Partie, un grief, une prétention ou une protestation que ladite
Partie conteste, rejette ou dont elle dénie lavalidité,soit expressément,
soit implicitement en persistant dans l'action, l'omission ou le compor-

tement incriminés,ou bien en ne prenant pas la mesure demandée,ou
encore en n'accordant pas la réparation souhaité».
IInesuffitpas que deux Etatsaient desthèsesdifférentesou mêmeopposées

sur un événemeno t u une situation pour qu'ily ait une affairecontentieuse et
la fin du passage citéle montre bien; si'Etat réclamantne peut obtenir de
l'autre Etat aucune satisfaction de sa réclamation,il n'y a pas de différend
entre eux. Or, que pouvait répondre le Gouvernement de I'Espagne à une
demande du Gouvernement du Maroc concernant le droit de réintégration
du Territoire dans le Royaume du Maroc,alors que cesdeux gouvernements

ont formellement acceptéde procéderà la décolonisation du Territoire par
une procédureentreprise au sein de l'organisation des Nations Unies, sinon
qu'il n'avait pas compétence pour déciderseul ce problème que les deux
gouvernements, avec bien d'autres, débattent dans divers organes des
Nations Unies. Mêmesi le Gouvernement de l'Espagne avait accepté
d'appuyer la revendication du Gouvernement du Maroc, une telle attitude
eût été dépourvued'effet juridique sur le plan international. Les deux

-ouvernements ont choisi formellement la décolonisation dans le cadre des
Nations Unies pour étudieret finalement réglerl'avenirdu Territoire,avec les
autres Membres des Nations Unies. 11n'y a pas de différend bilatéral
détachabledu débatsur la décolonisationaux Nations Unies, il n'ya pas de
différendbilatéraldu tout et il n'yen a jamais eu.
3. La Cour n'a pas repris dans l'avis consultatif les termes ((différend
juridique relatif au territoi»eentre les Gouvernements du Maroc et de

l'Espagne, utilisésdans l'ordonnance du 22 mai: les paragraphes 34 à 41
modifient légèrement l'analyse ep tarlent de controverse juridique néeen
dehors de relations bilatérales, lorsdes débatsaux Nations Unies et au sujet
de problèmestraitéspar l'AssembléegénéraleM . ais lemotif de l'ordonnance
du 22 mai étaitbien un prétendu différendbilatéral puisqu'un juge ad hoc
étaitadmispour le Maroc et refusépour la Mauritanie. Et, malgrêl'évolution

du style de I'avis, leraisonnement demeure qu'une controverse juridique a
persistéentre le Maroc et I'Espagne etceci est, me semble-t-il, insoutenable
pour les motifs de fond brièvement rappelés.C'est également insoutenable
dans l'histoire de la concrétisationdu prétendu différend.En examinant les
documents présentésla Cour rappelle justement que, entre 1958 et 1974,la
controverse eut plusieurs aspects. Entre 1966et 1974elle s'estompe au point
d'êtrelaisséede côté par le réclamant, en dehors de réservesdestinées à

maintenir sa thèsejuridique contre l'argument d'abandon. Mais, avant 1966,
l'opposition de vues entre Maroc et Espagne n'a jamais dépasséle stade de
l'entretien diplomatique bilatéralou du débatd'idéesaux Nations Unies; le
dossiersoumis à la Cour ne comporte pas une seule trace de négociation qui WESTERN SAHARA (DECL.GROS) 71

"... the one party [orparties]should be making, or should have made, a
complaint, claim or protest aboutan act, omission or course of conduct,

presënt or past of the other party, which the latter refutes, rejects or
denies the validity of, either expressly, or else implicitly by persisting in
the acts, omissions or conduct complained of, or by failing to take the
action or make the reparation, demanded".

It is not enough that two States may havedifferent or even opposing views
asto an event or~situationfor there tobe acontentious case,and the end of the
passagequoted makesthisclear: ifit isnot possible for any satisfaction for the
claim of the one State to be obtained from the other, there is no dispute
between them. Now what responsecould the Government of Spain make to a

claim of theGovernment of Morocco concerning the right of reintegration of
the Territory into theKingdom of Morocco, when these two Governments
have specifically agreed to effect the decolonization of the Territory by a
procedure set in motion within the United Nations, except to reply that it had
no competence to settle by itself this problem which the two Governments,
along with many others, are debating & various United Nations bodies. Even
if the Government of Spain had agreed to support the claim of the

Government of Morocco, such an attitude would havebeen without any legal
effect in the international sphere. The two Governments have explicitly
chosen decolonization in the context of the United Nations, in order to study
and ultimatelysettle thefuture of theTerritory, with the other Membersof the
United Nations. There is no bilateral dispute which is detachable from the
United Nations debate on the decolonization; there is no bilateral dispute at

all, nor has there ever been any such dispute.
3. In the Advisory Opinion the Court has not re-used the expression
"legal dispute. ..regarding the Territory" between the Governments of
Morocco and Spain, used inthe Order of 22May;paragraphs 34to 41slightly
modify the analysis, and refer to a legal controversy which arose not in
bilateral relations but during theproceedings of theGeneral Assembly,and in
relation tomatters with whichitwasdealing. Buttheground of theOrder of 22

May was an alleged bilateral dispute, since a judgead hoc was accepted for
Morocco and refused for Mauritania. Despite the stylisticdevelopment in the
Opinion, the reasoning is still that a legal controversy continued to subsist
between Morocco and Spain, and this is, itseemsto me, not maintainable for
the reasons of substance which 1 have briefly outlined. It is also not
maintainable in the light of,the history of how the alleged dispute took

concrete shape. When examAing the documents submitted, the Court has
correctly noted that between 1958and 1974the controversy had several
aspects. Between1966and 1974itsofar faded away that itwasleftasidebythe
claimant State, apart from reservations intended to prevent it being argued
that its legal contention had been abandoned. Prior to 1966,however, the
opposition ofviewsbetween Morocco and Spain nevergotbeyondthestage of
bilateral diplomatic conversations, or discussions of principle in the Unitedpuisse paraître un préliminaireà la concrétisation d'un différend bilatéral.
Après avoir tenté lavoie de la négociation avecl'Espagne pour obtenir des
solutions que le dossier ne précise pas, leGouvernement du Maroc a déclaré

le 7 juin 1966 choisir une autre voie, celle de« la libération et de I'indé-
pendance des populations marocaines du Sahara dit espagnol ..per-
suadé que.le chemin de l'unité passepar la libération et l'indépendance »
(A/AC.109/SR.436, p. 8). Le prétendu différend ne s'était pas concrétisé
jusqu'alors et dans lesdébatsultérieursil faut attendre la sessiondeAssem-
bléegénéralede 1974où,selonla Cour, il « reparaît».

4. Ayant recherché à propos de l'avis consultatif du 21 juin 1971(C.Z.J.
Recueil 1971, p. 329-330) les élémentsde solution du problème que pose
l'existence parallèle d'un différendentre deux ou plusieurs Etats et d'une
situation dont serait saisi un organe politique des Nations Unies, je con-
sidéraisque le fait detraiter une situation générale au seindes NationsUnies
ne pouvait fairedisparaître l'élément-différendntre Etats, s'il enexisteun à

la base de cette situation généraleet que, dans chaque cas, la première
question étaitde savoir sil'on esten présenceou non d'un véritabledifférend.
Je ne vois pas que, dans le cas présent,il y ait de différendentre Maroc et
Espagne; ilne peut pas y avoir de différendsurun point de droit que niunni
l'autre de ces Etats ne peuvent trancher par eux-mêmes.La contestation dans
tous lesdébatsaux Nations Unies porte sur un problèmedont la solution n'a
de sens que si elleest valable eromnes; en l'espèceil n'ya pas de différend

bilatéraldétachable du débatgénéralsur la réclamation du Gouvernement
du Maroc de réintégration du Territoiremais ce qui est détachabledu débat
généralc'est un point de droit d'intérêt générp alur lequel l'Assemblée
générales'estimemal informéeet qu'elle demande à la Cour de déterminer
afin de pouvoir poursuivïe l'examen de la décolonisation du Territoire. Ce
point peut certes intéresser plus spécialementtels Etats Membres et c'est la
raison pour laquelle ilssont mentionnésdans la résolution3292(XXIX), ces

Etats ne s'opposent pas des réclamations particulières,il n'ya pas différend.

5. Hors l'important intérêt juridiquede principe que comporte la discus-
sion du point, la différence entre le prétendu différend bilatéral et une
question juridique relevant de la compétence consultative de la Cour a eu
pour effetprincipal une décisionerronéeprise sur la composition de la Cour

et en second lieu que la présentation de l'avis consultatif a été exactement
transposée des habitudes du contentieux. Je regrette que la Cour ait confirmé
dans l'avis lathèseprovisoirement adoptée dans l'ordonnance du 22 mai et,
mejoignant aux réservesd'autres membresde la Cour, je maintiens que cette
analyse n'a pas tenu compte des conditions nécessaires pour admettre
l'existencede différendsréels.Ceci d'autant plus qu'en admettant dans l'avis
consultatif que l'objetde sonexamen dépendaitde l'interprétationde l'action

de décolonisation du Territoire, la Cour abandonnait en pratique la thèsede WESTERNSAHARA (DECL.GROS) 72

Nations; the dossier before the Court does not contain a single trace of a
negotiation which might appearto be a preliminary to the crystallization of a

bilateral dispute. After having tried the wayof negotiation with Spain inorder
to obtain solutions the nature of which the dossier does not make clear, the
Government of Morocco stated on 7 June 1966that it would choose another
way, that of "the liberation and independence of the Moroccan people of
so-called Spanish Sahara ...in the conviction that unity could be achieved
onlythroughliberation and independence. .."(A/AC.109/SR.436, p. 8).The

allegeddispute had not crystallized up to that time, and insubsequent debates
itwasnot until the 1974sessionof theGeneral Assemblythat, according to the
Court, it "reappeared".
4. In connection with the Advisory Opinion of 21June 1971 (I.C.J.
Reports 1971,pp. 329-330),1have enquired into the elements for solution of

the problem posed by the parallel existence of a dispute between two or more
States and of a situation of which the political organ of the United Nations
was seised,and 1then took the viewthat the factthat a general situation was
being dealt with within the United Nations could not bring about the
disappearanceof the element of a dispute between States ifthere existed such
an element,and that in eachcasethe firstquestion waswhether one isor isnot

confronted with what is really a dispute. 1do not see that in the present case
there is any dispute between Morocco and Spain; there cannot be a dispute
over a legal issue which neither of the States can resolve by themselves.The
disagreement in al1 the United Nations debates concerns a problem any
solution of which is meaningless unless it isvalid erga omnes; in the present
case there is no bilateral dispute which can be detached from the general
discussion of the claim of the Government of Morocco to re-integration of

the Territory, but what isdetachable from the general discussion isa point of
law of general interest on which the General Assembly considers itself
insufficiently informed, and which it asks the Court to settle in order to be
able to continue its examination of the decolonization of the Territory. This
point may of course be of more particular interest to certain member States,
and that isthe reason whythey are mentioned in resolution 3292(XXIX), but

these States are not making specificclaims against each other, and there isno
dispute.
5.Apart from the important legal interest of principle involved in the
discussion of the point, the principal consequence of the difference between
the alleged bilateral dispute and a legal question falling within the advisory
competence of the Court has been an erroneous decison taken as to the

composition of the Court, and further the fact that the presentation of the
Advisory Opinion is a precise transposition of what is customary in
contentious proceedings. 1find it regrettable that the Court should in the
Opinion haveconfirmed the viewprovisionally taken in the Order of 22 May,
and-associating myself with the reservations of other Members of the
Court- 1maintain that that analysis did not take account of the necessary

conditions for the existence of real disputes to be recognized. This isal1the
more so in that, by conceding in the advisory opinion that the subject of its73 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(DÉCL.GROS)

l'opposition bilatérale Maroc-Espagne surla réintégration du Territoiredans
le Royaume du Maroc.

6. La question de savoir si, dans l'action entaméepar les Nations Unies
pour la décolonisation du Sahara occidental, un ou deux Etats peuvent
invoquer un droit àréintégrationdu Territoiresous leur souverainetéest une
questionjuridique au sens de I'article65du Statutde la Cour et ilconvient d'y
répondre. Mais la définition des questions juridiques selon l'article 65 telle

que I'avisconsultatif la formule de façon générale auxparagraphes 18et 19
me paraît dangereusement inexacte. Je rappellerai seulement que la Cour,
lorsqu'elle rend un avis consultatif sur une question de droit, dit le droit.
L'absence de force obligatoire ne transforme pas la démarche judiciaire en

consultation juridique qu'on utilise ou non à sa guise. L'avis consultatif
déterminele droit applicable à la question posée;il est possible que l'organe
qui ademandéI'avisne lesuivepas dans son action, mais cet organe saitqu'il
ne pourrait adopter une position contraire au prononcé dela Cour avec une
efficacitéquelconque sur le plan juridique. Dans le cas présenttel qu'il a été

définidans I'avisconsultatif ce point n'estplus en doute; puisque la question
poséeétait reconnue comme juridique et qu'une réponse pouvait être en-
visagéecomme susceptible d'influer sur l'action de décolonisation du Terri-
toire parl'organisation des Nations Unies, la Cour pouvait exercernormale-
ment sa fonction d'organe judiciaire sur une tellequestion, àla différencedu

cas envisagéen 1963où elledéclarait: ((un tribunal n'a pas simplement pour
fonction de fournir une base d'action politique alors qu'aucune question
juridique concernant des droits efectifs n'est en jeu » (C.I.J.Recueil 1963,
p. 37; les italiques sont ajoutés). La réponse de la Cour concerne une
prétentionàun droit de réintégration du Territoiredans lemoment présentet

le fait que la première épreuvede ce droit était celledes titres antérieursà la
colonisation ne donne pas un caractère abstrait ou académique à une telle
question. IIn'enestpas de mêmepour l'autre partie de la réponseque la Cour
a donnée dans le paragraphe 162 de I'avis, comme nous le verrons aux
paragraphes 10et 12de ces observations; c'est l'application de cette théorie

extensivedu sens de I'article65du Statut àla partie dispositive deI'avisqui en
montre lecaractère abusif.
7. Pour en terminer avec cet aspect des problèmes de compétence quise
posaient à la Cour, je remarquerai seulement que les engagements pris dans

une ordonnance sur une question préliminaire ont, une fois de plus, liéla
Cour. Les considérants de l'ordonnance du 22 mai 1975 se fondent sur des
((apparences ))de différendentre Maroc et Espagne et de demande sur une
question juridique pendante entre deux ou plusieurs Etats au sens de l'ar-
ticle 89 du Règlement;le verbe a paraître » est employéquatre fois. Mais la

Cour ajoutait que ses conclusions ne préjugeaient sa position sur aucune
des questions àdéciderdans la suite,compétence,opportunité de répondreà
la demande, fond. Malgré la disparition pratique du différendbilatéraldans
la chaîne de raisonnements de la Cour dans son avis et le voile posé sur WESTERNSAHARA(DECL.GROS) 73

examination depended on the interpretation of the decolonization action of
the Territory, the Court in effectabandoned the viewthat there wasabilateral

opposition between Morocco and Spain as to the re-integration of the
Territory into theKingdom of Morocco.
6. The question whether, within the decolonization process of Western
Sahara commenced by the United Nations, one or two States can invoke a
right to re-integration of theTerritory soas toome under their sovereignty is
a legal question within the meaning of Article 65 of the Statute of the Court,

and it is proper to give a reply thereto. But the definition of legal questions
within the meaning of Article 65, as formulated in a general way in
paragraphs 18 and 19 of the Advisory Opinion, seems to me dangerously
inaccurate. 1 shall merely recall that when the Court gives an advisory
opinion on a question of law it Statesthe law. The absence of binding force

does not transform the judicial operation into a legal consultation, which
may be made use of or not according to choice. The advisory opinion
determines the law applicable to the question put; it is possible for the body
which sought the opinion not to follow it in its action, but that body is aware
that no position adopted contrary to the Court's pronouncement will have
any effectiveness whatsoever in the legal sphere. In the present case, as

defined in the Advisory Opinion, this point is no longer in doubt; since the
question put has been found to be a legal one, and since a reply could be
regarded as capable of influencing the United Nations action of
decolonization of the Territory, the Court could exercise its function as a
judicial organ on such a question in the normal way, unlike the case

contemplated in 1963 when it stated that: "it is not the function of a Court
merely to provide a basis for political action if no question of actual legal
rights is involved" (I.C.J. Reports 1963,p. 37, emphasis added). The Court's
reply concerns a claim of right to re-integration of theTerritory at thepresent
time, and the fact that the first test of that right was that of the titles prior to
colonization does not make such a question abstract or academic. That isnot

so with regard to the other part of the reply which the Court has given in
paragraph 162of theOpinion, as weshall seein paragraphs 1Oand 12of these
observations; it is the application of this theory, which gives an extensive
meaning to Article 65 of the Statute, to the operative part of the Opinion
which shows how improper it is.
7. To conclude on this aspect of the problems of competence which have

arisen for the Court,1shall merely observe that once again the commitments
entered into in an Order on a preliminary question have tied the Court's
hands. The recitals in the Order of 22 May 1975 were based on the
"appearance" of a dispute between Morocco and Spain and of a requeston a
legal question pending between two or more States within the meaning of

Article 89 of the Rules; the verb "appear" is used four times. The Court
however then went on to Saythat its conclusions did not prejudge its position
on any of thequestionssubsequently to be decided,competence,propriety of
replying to the request, merits. Despite the effective disappearance of the
bilateral dispute in the Court's train of reasoning in its Opinion, and the veill'existenced'une questionjuridique pendante entre des Etats, la Cour n'a pas
voulu ou pu modifier le prononcé de mai 1975 alors que la raison de la
désignation d'un juge ad hoc ne tient pas. Le troisième considérant de

l'ordonnance déclareque la Cour «compte sur le siège un jugeressortissant
de l'Espagne, Puissance administrante du Sahara occidental »; j'ai indiqué
aux paragraphes2 et4ci-dessusque, àcetitre ou àun autre, l'Espagne n'avait
pas étépartie à un différend bilatéral, ni au règlement d'une question
juridique pendanteentre deux ou plusieursEtats. En décidantquelaquestion
posée à la Cour étaitreliéeà la poursuite de l'action de décolonisation par

l'Assembléegénéralel,a Cour admet implicitement que lajustification de sa
compétence n'est plus le différend « apparu » en mai 1975. Sir Gerald
Fitzmaurice et moi-mêmeavons commentéen 1971les regrettables effetsde
cesordonnances surlacomposition de laCour qui préjugentirrévocablement
lefond (C.I.J.Recueil1971,p. 316,325-326et 330).Je doisajouter, dans lecas
présent,que la Cour a laissé siéger unde ses membres alors qu'il avait pris

position aux Nations Unies sur un élément dudébat(cf. sur ce point C.I.J.
Recueil 1971,l'opinion dissidente de sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, p. 309, et mes
observations, p. 311et suiv.).

8. Mes observations sur les problèmes poséspar le Gouvernement de la
Mauritanie ne s'écartentpas, pour l'essentiel,de cellesde la Cour; cependant
je remarquerai que la position juridique du Gouvernement de la Mauritanie
dans la procédure devant la Cour était particulière puisqu'il n'avait pas
prétendu opposer, avant 1974,sa prétention de réintégration du Territoire

dans son territoire nationalla poursuite normalede la procédured'autodé-
termination des populations du Territoire dans le cadre des Nations Unies.

9. Les considérations qui précèdent sur l'interprétation qu'il conviendte
donner à l'article 65 du Statut et sur l'objet exact de la demande d'avis me
permettent d'êtrebref dans l'explication de mon vote négatif sur I'oppor-
tunitéderépondreàla premièrequestioncontenue dans lademande. LaCour
ayant décidéde répondre à cette question dans les termes mêmesoù elle est
posée,j'ai considéréque la question n'était pas juridique, qu'elle était

purement académiqueet sans portée utileetje partage lesvuesde M. Dillard
sur son caractère tendancieux (a loaded question).L'avis consultatif recon-
naît, àjuste titre, que la notion de terra nulliusn'a jamais été invoquéear
aucun des Etats intéressésau statut du Territoire au moment de la colonisa-
tion;aucun traitéou document diplomatique n'aétéproduit qui invoquecette
notion à propos du Sahara occidental et les Etats ne parlent alors que de WESTERN SAHARA (DECL. GROS) 74

drawn over the existence of a legal question pending between States, the
Court has been unable or unwilling to modify what it said in May 1975,

although thereason for the appointment of ajudge ad hocdoes not stand. The
third recital in the Order states that the Court "includes upon the Bench a
judge of the nationality of Spain, the administering Power of Western
aha ara" ;havepointed out in paragraphs 2and 4 above that Spain was not,
on the basis of that or any other status, a party to a bilateral dispute, orto the
settlement of a legal question pending between two or more States. By
deciding that the question put to the Court was linked to the pursuit of the

General Assembly'sdecolonization process, the Court impliedlyadmits that
the justification for its cornpetence is no longer the dispute which there
"appeared" to be in May 1975. Judge Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice and 1
commented in 1971 on the regrettable effects of these Orders on the
composition of the Court which irrevocably prejudge the merits (I.C.J.
Reports 1971,p. 316,pp. 325-326and 330). 1should add, in the present case,

thattheCourt allowed one of its Members to sitalthough hehad in theUnited
Nations committed himself on one element in the discussion(on thispoint cf.
I.C.J.Reports 1971,the dissenting opinion of Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice, p. 309,
and my own observations on pp. 311 ff.).

8. My observations on the problerns raised by the Government of
Mauritania essentiallydo not differfrom those of the Court; 1would however
observe that the legal position of the Government of Mauritania in the
proceedings before the Court was peculiar, inasmuch as prior to 1974it did

not seek to set up its claim for reintegration of the Territory into its national
territory against the normal pursuit of the procedure for self-determination
of the population of the Territory in the United Nations context.

9. The above considerations asto theproper interpretation of Article 65of
the Statute and the precise object of the request for advisory opinion enable
meto be brief in explaining my negativevoteasto the propriety of replying to
the first question in the request. Since the Court decided to reply to this
question in the very terms in which ithas been put, 1took the view that the

question wasnot a legalone, that it waspurelyacademic and served no useful
purpose, and 1share the views ofJudge Dillard asto itsbeing a "loaded" one.
The Advisory Opinion rightly recognizes that the concept of terranulliuswas
never relied on by any of the States interested in the status of the Territory at
the time of colonization; no treaty or diplomatic document has been
produced relying on this concept in connection with Western Sahara, and
States at the time spoke only of zones of influence. With regard to a territory75 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (DÉCL.GROS)

zonkd'influence. Pour un territoire àpropos duquel la notion n'apparaît pas
dans la pratique des Etats, c'estun exerciced'écolede demander àlaCour de

se prononcer sur une situation hypothétique; lejuge ne recherchepas ce qui
aurait pu se passer en 1884si les Etats avaient invoqué cette notion, mais ce
qui s'estpassé.Si la véritable question poséepar l'Assembléegénéraleétait,
dans l'esprit de ses auteurs, le statut juridique du Territoire selon le droit
international de l'époque, ellefaisait double emploi avec la deuxième

question àlaquelle la Cour, pres&e àl'unanimité,a acceptéde répondre.
Celadit, puisque laCoura décidé de répondre àcettepremièrequestion,et
que nos règlesnepermettentpasl'abstention, j'ai votéavectousmescollègues
que leTerritoiren'était passans maître avantla colonisation. J'estimeen effet
quelestribusindépendantesquiparcouraient leTerritoire ou s'yarrêtaient en

certains lieux exerçaient une autorité de fait suffisamment reconnue pour
qu'il n'y ait pas eu terre sans maître.

10. La solution choisie par la Cour pour donner sa réponseàla deuxième
question n'est pas la plus simple puisque, procédant par renvoi au para-
graphe 162du raisonnement,laréponseelle-mêmeesténigmatiqueautantque
ce paragraphe qui associeune constatation positive de liens dits juridiques

d'allégeanceentre certaines tribus nomades du Territoire et l'empereur du
Maroc au moment de la colonisation, en mêmetemps que d'autres liens dits
juridiques, cette fois entre l'ensemble mauritanien et le Territoire, à une
décisionnégativesurl'existenced'unliendesouverainetésurleTerritoire dela
part de l'Empire du Maroc ou de l'ensemblemauritanien, avecla conclusion
qu'aucun lienjuridique n'existequi pourrait influersur le principe d'autodé-

termination par l'expressionlibreet,authentique delavolontédespopulations
du Territoire (ceciavecnouveau renvoiaux paragraphes 54 à 59de l'avis).

La deuxième partie du paragraphe 162 concernant la question de la

souverainetéterritoriale est la seulequicorresponde à la question poséedans
la requêtepouravis. L'objetde la requête,commeje l'aidit dèsleparagraphe
premier ci-dessus, était d'obtenir l'avis de la Cour sur une prétention du
Gouvernement du Maroc tendant à la réintégratiundu Territoire dans le
territoire national marocain etsuruneprétention parallèle du Gouvernement

de la Mauritanie fondée sur la notion d'ensemble mauritanien au moment
considéréa ,vis consultatif nécessaireavant de poursuivrel'action de décolo-
nisationduTerritoire. Je partage lesvuesetladécisionde la Coursur cepoint
de droit.
Par contre, si leparagraphe 162avaitétédiviséen deux,j'aurais votécontre
la première partie visant les ((liens juridiques » autres que celui de la

souveraineté territoriale parce que ces liens ne sont pas des liens juridiques
mais des liens ethniques, religieux ou culturels, des liens de contact d'une
civilisation aveccequi luiestpériphériqueetextérieurquin'entamentpas son WESTERNSAHARA (DECL.GROS) 75

in respect of whichtheconceptmakesno appearance in thepractice of States,

it is a sterile exercise to ask the Court to pronounce on a hypothetical
situation; itis not for a court to enquire into what would have happened in
1884if Stateshad relied on thisconcept,but into what did happen. If the real
questionput by the General Assembly,in the thinking of those whodrafted it,
was what was the legal status of the Territory under international law at the

time, it duplicated the second question, to which the Court has, almost
unanimously,agreed to reply.
Having said that, since the Court has decided to give a reply to the first
question, and since our rules do not permit an abstention, 1have voted with
al1my colleagues that the Territory was not nulliusbefore colonization; for 1
consider that the independent tribes travellingoverthe territory, or stopping

in certain places, exercised a de facto authority which was sufficiently
recognized for there to have been no terra nullius.

10. The Court has not adopted the simplest way of giving its reply to the
second question, since the reply itself, inasmuch as it is effected by
cross-reference to paragraph 162 of the reasoning, is enigmatic, as is the
paragraph referred to, in which a positive finding of what aresaid to be legal
ties of allegiance between certain nomadic tribes of the territory and the

Emperor of Morocco at thetime of colonization, and alsoother ties whichare
said tobe legal,thistime between the Mauritanian entity and the Territory, is
combined with a negative decision asto the existenceof anytie of sovereignty
overthe territory on the part of the Emperor of Morocco or the Mauritanian
entity,the conclusion being that no legal tie exists which could influence the
principle of self-determinationthrough thefree and genuine expression ofthe

will of the peoples of the Territory (with a fresh cross-reference here to
paras. 54-59of the opinion).
The second part of paragraph 162,concerning the question of territorial
sovereignty, is the only one which corresponds to the question put in the
request for opinion. The object of the request, as 1 said in my very first
paragraph above, was to obtain the opinion of the Court on a claim of the

Government of Morocco to the reintegration of the Territory in the national
territory of Morocco, and on a parallel claim by the Government of
Mauritania based on the concept of the Mauritanian entity at the time in
question, which advisory opinion was necessary prior to pursuit of the
decolonization of the territory. 1agree with the views and decision of the

Court on this point of law.
On the other hand, if paragraph 162 had been divided into two, 1would
have voted against the firstpart which relates to the "legal ties"otheran the
tie of territorial sovereignty,ecause those ties are not legal ties but ethnic,
religious or cultural ties, ties ofcontact of a civilization with what lies on its
periphery and outside it, and which do not touch on its own nature. 1mustcaractèrepropre. Il me fautdonc faire quelquesremarques sur ce'ttepartie de
la réponse de la Cour avec laquelle je suis en désaccord, tant sur le
raisonnement que la conclusion (par. 105,106,107,129pour le Maroc; 151et

152pour la Mauritanie; 162pour la conclusion).
11. La description du désert saharien et de la vie nomade vers 1884faite
dans l'avis estune vision bucolique de réalitéssévères.A l'époque,le désert
saharien estencorecette mer desable sans frontièreque lescaravanes utilisent
comme d'esconvois un océan,assurant un commerce qui est bien connu; le
désert est une voie d'accès aux marchés périphériques.La relation du

territoire avec les hommes est affectéepar ces traits et l'organisation des
populations du désert reflètecesconditions particulières de vie, la caravane,
la recherche des terrains de pacage, les oasis, la défense ou la conquête, la
protection etlasoumission entre lestribus àpropos desquellesun témoignage
produit devant la Cour et non contesté déclare que,à l'époque contempo-
raine, on compterait cent soixante-treizetribus maures. La Cour n'ayant pu
précisersesrecherches, ilest vain de généralise,n dehors de toutes données

véritables,qu'il y avait une « allégeance » entre l'empereur du Maroc et
« certaines» tribus nomades ou « certains droits relatifs à la t»rentre le
Territoire et l'ensemble mauritanien, alors que la Cour ne pourrait dire ni
quellestribus étaient concernéesen 1884,avecquelle efficacitéet pour quelle
durée, ni quel exercice effectif de droits relatifs à la terre confondaient
l'ensemble mauritanien et les tribus, quelles tribus et pour quelle durée. Le

juge doit établir des faits, c'est-à-direconstater leur existenceet il leur donne
un sensjuridique par sa décision;il ne peut ni supposer l'existencede faits ni
les déduire d'hypothèses non documentées.Comment parler d'un lien juri-
dique d'allégeance, notion de droit féodaldans une société hiérarchisée à
l'extrême où l'allégeance était une obligation formellementet publiquement
assumée,connuede tous, invoquéede part et d'autre, et sanctionnéepar des

procédureset pas seulement la contrainte armée.La situation politique, au
sens le plus large du mot, des tribus du déseriest celle d'une indépendance
affirméepar lesarmes entre cestribus elles-mêmeset àl'égardde la périphérie
de leurs territoires de parcours. Pour donner au terme allégeance son sens
traditionnel il eût fallu dire davantage que la possibilité de manifesta-

tions d'une autoritédu Sultan sur certaines tribus du désert non identifiées
(par.105de l'avis).Quant aux indications et déductionsapportéessurle rôle
desdifférentestribus des Tekna, égalementnon identifiées,ellesme semblent
aventureuses et de simples constructions à posteriori d'une époque peu
connue. Dans l'étatdu dossier et des ouvrages de géographes, historiens,
explorateurs ou militaires sur cette époque,le désert saharienet sestribus ne

reconnaissent pas d'allégeance au sensjuridique du mot et des contacts ou
relations épisodiques avec l'extérieur n'entament pas la singularitéetI'ex-
clusivismede leur mode de vie. Si le désertest bien un monde à part, c'estun
monde autonome dans la conception de ses rapports avec qui vit autrement. WESTERNSAHARA (DECL. GROS) 76

therefore make a fewobservations on thepart of the Court's replywith which
1disagree, both as regards the reasoning and the conclusion (for Morocco,
paras. 105, 106, 107, 129; for Mauritania, paras. 151 and 152; for the
conclusion, para. 162).

11. The description given in the Opinion of the Saharan desert and of
nomadic life in 1884 is an idyllic vision of what was a harsh reality. At the
time, the Saharan desert was still the frontierless sea of sand used by the
caravans asconvoys usean ocean, for the ,wrposes of a well-known trade; the
desert was a way ofaccess to markets on it: periphery. The relation between
the territory and human beings was affected by these aspects, and the
organization of the populations of thedesert reflectsthese special conditions

of life:caravans, thequest for pastures, oases,defence or conquest,protection
and submission between tribes - with regard to which testimonyproduced to
the Court, and not disputed, was to the effectthat in modern times there are
173 Moorish tribes. Since the Court was unable to cary out any specific
research,it isvain to makegeneralizations, in theabsence of any reliable data,
on the linesthat there was "allegiance" between the Emperor of Morocco and
"some" of the nomadic tribes, or "some rights relating to the land", between

the Territory and the Mauritanian entity, when the Court would be quite
unable to say either what were the tribes concerned in 1884,to what extent
and for what period, nor in what effectiveexercise of rights relating to the
land the tribes and the Mauritanian entity were combined, nor what tribes,
nor for what period. It is the duty of acourt to establishfacts, that isto sayto
make findings as to their existence, and it confers a legal meaning upon them
by its decision; a court may neither suppose the existence of factsnoreduce

them from hypotheses unsupported by evidence. How can one speak of a
legal tie of allegiance, a concept of feudal law in an extremely hierarchical
Society,in which allegiance was an obligation which was assumed formally
and publicly, which was known to all, was relied on on both sides, and was
backed by specific procedures and not merely by the force of arms. The
political situation, in the broadest senseof the term, of the tribes of the desert
is that of independence asserted by arms, independence both between the

tribes themselves and with regard to what lay on the periphery of their
travelling grounds. To give the term allegiance its traditional sense, more
wouldhave to be said than that itwas possible that the Sultan displayedsome
authority over some unidentified tribes of the desert (para. 105 of the
Opinion). As to the observations and deductions made as to the role of the
various Tekna tribes, also unidentified, these seem to me injudicious, mere a
posterioriconstructions of a littleknown epoch. On the basis of thedossier as

it stands, and of the studies of this period by geographers, historians,
explorers and soldiers, the Saharan desert and its tribes did not recognize
allegiance in the legal sense of the word, and sporadic contacts or
relationships with the outside world did not affect the peculiarity and
exclusivity-of their way of life. If the desert is a separateworld, it is an
autonomous world in the conception of its relationships with those who have
a different way of life.77 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(DÉCL.GROS)

12. Des rapports de contact dont la durée est inconnue et l'existence à
l'époquedela colonisationsupposéeplutôt que prouvéeneconstituentpas un
objetpossibled'étudeetde réponse pourlaCour qui, en yprocédant,excède
lespouvoirsqueluiconfère l'article 65 de son Statut (cf. p6rci-dessus).Par
l'effetde l'interprétation extensivedonnéeà l'articl65 qui l'a amenéeà se
poser une secondequestion, celle des liensjuridiques autres quela souverai-
neté surteTerritoire àl'époqueconsidérées ,eul objet de la controversequi a

provoqué la requête pouravis, la Cour prétend répondre à une question
juridique mais lesliensqu'ellequalifiedejuridiques ne leseraientque si,après
en avoir établiI'existence,la Cour pouvait, d'une manièrequelconque par la
détermination de sa portée, produire un effet sur l'action de décolonisation
du Territoire. La Cour ne peut attribuer un caractèrejuridique àdesfaitsqui
ne l'ont pas en eux-mêmes;lejuge ne crée pas ledroit, il l'établit.S'iln'y a
aucune règlede droit qui lui permette d'affirmer I'existencedes prétendus
liensjuridiques, la Cour sort de son rôle d'organe judiciaire en les qualifiant

de juridiques et son prononcé n'est pas un prononcé de droit; l'indication
donnéepar la Cour au paragraphe 73 de l'avis selon laquelle il faut que des
questions poséesdans une demande d'avis aient « un effetpratique àl'heure
actuelle» pour nepasêtre « dépourvuesd'objet oude but » ne peut suffirecar
la Cour n'a pas,-en la matière, qualité pour adonner des conseils » à
l'Assembléegénéralequi puissent avoir un effet pratique. Pour de tels
facteurs, qu'ils aient existée1884 - ce qui n'a pas été«établi» au sens

judiciaire du mot - ou non, l'Assembléegénéraleserait librede les prendre
en considération aussi bien que d'autres facteurs contemporains qui ne
relèventpas davantage de lacompétencedela Cour, parce que l'économie,la
sociologieou la géographie humaine ne sont pas le droit. La Cour disait en
1962:« conformémentàl'article 65du StatutlaCour ne peut donner un avis
que surunequestionjuridique. Siunequestion n'estpasjuridique, laCour n'a
pas de pouvoir discrétionnaire en la matière»(avis consultatif du20 juillet
1962, Certaines dépenses des Nations Unies (article17,paragraphe2, de la

Charte), C.I.J. Recueil1962,p.155).
13.J'ai exprimémon sentiment en 1974 sur cette nouvelle tendance de la
Cour à répondreà des problèmes qu'ellese pose plutôt qu'à celui qui lui est
posé et ne puis que reprendre mes observations d'alors(C.Z.J.Recueil1974,
p. 148-149).Dans le cas présentj'ai étécontraint par la formulation de la
partie dispositive de l'avisconsultatif àun vote aussipeu satisfaisantquecette
formulation elle-mêmec ,ommelemontrent lesdiverses opinions par rapport

à l'apparente quasi-unanimité. Comme d'autres, je n'ai eu le choix qu'entre
une approbation ou un désaccord égalementqualifiésde réserves;j'ai voté
pour l'approbation du dispositif, donc du paragraphe 162, à cause de sa
partie relative àl'objet de la demande, tel que je l'ai définiici, c'est-à-dire la
vérificationde I'existence de liensjuridiques d'appartenance ou de dépen-
dance des populations du Territoire, à l'époque considérée, parrapport à
une autoritépolitiqueextérieure,en un motdes liens relatifs àlasouveraineté
réclaméedevant la Cour; et là s'arrêtait le rôledela Cour. WESTERN SAHARA (DECL. GROS) 77

12. Contact-relationships of which the duration is unknown, and the
existence of which at the period of colonization is supposed rather than
proved, do not afford possible material for the Court to examine and on
which to reply,and by doing so it overstepsthe limits of the powers conferred
upon it by Article 65 of its Statute (cf. para.6 above). By means of the
extensive interpretation given to Article65,whereby the Court wasled to put

to itselfa secondquestion, that of the legaltiesotherhan sovereigntyoverthe
Territory at the period under consideration, which was the solesubject of the
controversy which gave rise to the request for opinion,theCourt purports to
be replying to a legal question, but the ties which it describes as legal would
only be so if, after having established their existence, the Court could in
any way, by determining their significance, produce an effect on the
decolonization of the Territory. The Court cannot attribute a legal nature to

facts which do not intrinsically possess it; a court does not create the law, it
establishes it. If there is nole of law making it possible for it to assert the
existence of the alleged legal ties, the Court oversteps its role as a judicial
organ by describing them as legal, and its finding is not a legal finding;the
Court's statement in paragraph 73 of the Opinion that questions put in a
request for opinion must have "a practical and contemporary effect" if they

are not to be "devoid of object or purpose", does not suffice,for the Court
does not in this fieldhave capacity to "give advice" to the General Assembly
which would have a practical effect. Whether such factors existed in 1884 or
not - which has not been "established" in thejudicial sense of the word - the
General Assembly would be free to take them into account together with
other contemporary factors, which also do not fa11within the Court's
competence, because economics, sociology and human geography are not

law. In 1962 the Court said: "in accordance with Article 65 of its Statute, the
Court can give an advisory opinion only on a legal question. If a question is
not a legalone,the Court has no discretion in the matter" (AdvisoryOpinion
of 20 July 1962, Certain Expenses of the United Nations (Article 17,para-
graph2,ofthe Charter),I.C.J.Reports 1962,p. 155).
13. 1expressed myviewin 1974 astothecurrent trend in theCourt to reply
to problems which it raises itself rather than to that which is submitted to it,

and can only endorse what 1said then (I.C.J. Reports 1974.pp. 148-149). In
the present case, the way in which the operative part of the Advisory Opinion
has been drawn has obliged me to vote in a way as unsatisfactory as that
drafting itself, as isshown by the various opinions in relation to the apparent
quasi-unanimity. Likeother Members of the Court, 1was faced only with the
choice between agreeing or disagreeingsubject in eithereventto reservations.
1 voted in favour of the adoption of the operative clause, and thus of

paragraph 162, because of the part thereof concerning the object of the
request, as 1havedefined it above, that isto sayverification of theexistence of
legaltiesofappurtenance or dependence of thepopulation of theTerritory, at
the period under consideration, vis-à-vis an external political authority -in
short, tiesrelating to thesovereignty which wasclaimedbefore theCourt; and
the role of the Court went no further than that.78 SAHARA OCCIDENTAL (DÉCL. IGNACIO-PINTO)

M. IGNACIO-PINTO ju,ge, fait la déclarationsuivante:

Je n'ai pusouscrire qu'en partie a l'avisde la Cour internationalede Justice
en datedu 16octobre 1975etseulementparceque, en son dernier considérant
(par. 162),la Cour

«conclut que les élémentset renseignements portés à sa connaissance
n'établissent l'existend'aucun lien de souveraineté territoriale entre le
territoire du Sahara occidental d'une part, le Royaume du Maroc ou
l'ensemble mauritanien d'autre part. La Cour n'a donc pas constaté

l'existence de liensjuridiques de nature à modifier l'application de la
résolution 1514 (XV) quant a la décolonisation et en particulier l'ap-
plication du principe de l'autodétermination grâceàl'expressionlibre et
authentiquede la volonté des populations du territoire»

Je rejette en conséquencetoutela partie de l'exposéde la Cour qui déclare
qu'au moment de la colonisation espagnole il y avait des liens juridiques
d'allégeanceentre lesultan du Maroc etcertaines tribus du territoire en même
temps que d'autres liensjuridiques entre l'ensemble mauritanien et le terri-

toire du Sahara occidental.
Mon opposition contre l'avis consultatif provient de ce que je considère
que,s'ilappertque la Cour estfondée a sedéclarer compétente auxtermesdes
dispositions de I'article 96 de la Charte des Nations Unies d'une part et de
I'article5 du Statut de la Cour d'autre part pour recevoir de l'Assemblée
généraledes Nations Unies la requêted'avis consultatif, il eût étéopportun

qu'en raison de certaines circonstances de la cauab initiola Cour, usant de
son pouvoir discrétionnaire, après avoir déclaré recevablela requêtequant à
la forme, la rejette quant au fondparceque lesquestions tellesqu'ellesétaient
poséesconstituent une sorte de questions pièges,lesquelles amenaient de
toutemanièreàlaréponseattendue enl'espèce,lareconnaissance dedroitsde

souverainetéau Maroc d'une part et àla Mauritanie d'autre part sur telle ou
telle autre partie du Sahara occidental.
Pour abréger et éviterdes répétitions inutiles,je puis me rallier aux
observations de M. Petrénportant sur l'interprétation duparagraphe 162de
l'aviset les raisons pour lesquelles mon collègue,comme moi-même,rejette
dans ce paragraphetout cequi neconcerne pas lesliensde souverainetésurle

territoire de la part du Maroc ou de l'ensemble mauritanien, partie du
paragraphe que je puis accepter.

Judge NAGENDRA SINGHmakes the following declaration:

While agreeing with the Advisory Opinion and the emphasis that it places
on ascertainment of the willof the people "genuinely expressed" as the basic

70 WESTERNSAHARA(DECL.IGNACIO-PINTO) 78

Judge IGNACIO-PINTO makes the followingdeclaration:

[Translation]

1 have been able to subscribe only in part to the Opinion of the
InternationalCourt of Justice dated 16 October 1975 and only because in the
final paragraph of its reasoning, paragraph162, the Court's

"... conclusion is that the materials and information presented to it do
not establish any tie of territorial sovereignty between the territory of
Western Sahara and the Kingdom of Morocco or the Mauritanian
entity. Thus the Court has not found legal ties of such a nature as might
affect the application of resolution514(XV) in the decolonization of
Western Sahara and, in particular, of the principle of self-determination

through thefree and genuineexpression of the will ofthe peoples of the
Territory."

1consequently reject al1that part of the Court's statement which declares
that at the time of colonization by Spain there were legal ties of allegiance
between the Sultan of Morocco and certain tribes of theterritom at the same
time as other legal ties between the Mauritanian entity and the territory of
Western Sahara.
Myobjection to the Advisory Opinion isdue to the factthat 1consider that,

evenifitappearsthat the Court isjustified indeclaring itselfcompetent under
the provisions of Article96 of the Charter of the United Nations on the one
hand, and of Article65 of the Statute of the Court on the other, to receive
from the United Nations General Assembly the request for an advisory
opinion, it would have been proper by reason of certain circumstances in the
case ab initiofor theCourt, availing itself of itsdiscretionary power, and after

having declared the request receivable as to the form, to reject it as to the
substance, because the questions as put are, as it were, loaded questions,
leading in any case to the answer awaited in this particular instance, namely
the recognition of rights of sovereignty of Morocco on the onehand and of
Mauritania on the other over some part or other of Western Sahara.
For the sake of brevity and to avoid useless repetition, 1can support the
observations of Judge Petrén concerning theinterpretation of paragraph162

of the Opinion and the groundson which mycolleague,like myself,rejectsal1
of that paragraph other than where it deals with the question of any tie
of territorial sovereigntybetween the territory and Morocco and the Mauri-
tanian entity- a part of the paragraph which 1can accept.

M.NACENDR SAINGH, ju\e, fait la déclaration suivante:
[Traduction]

Bien que je souscrive à l'avis consultatif et que j'approuve son insistance
sur la nécessitd'une expression authentique de la volontédes populations, 79 WESTERN SAHARA(DECL.NAGENDRA SINGH)

pillar of self-determination it may be worthwhile to throw more light on the
nature and character of the legal ties which remain the subject-matter of
Question II of General Assemblyresolution 3292(XXIX) by which the Court

is seised of the present request for an Advisory Opinion. No tribunal would
appear to depart from its judicial character if it were to state precisely the
implications ofthose ties in terms of decolonization which is the very object
and the main theme of the exercise pending before the General Assembly.
This is a vital aspect which has to be stated fully and in clear and un-

ambiguousterms to enlightenthe General Assembly.
In addition there are otheraspects,perhaps equally important; which merit
attention and require to be appropriately emphasized to convey the full
significanceof the Advisory Opinion. Thesematters which weighwith meare
briefly stated below.

Both Morocco and Mauritania have pleaded on certain pertinent aspects

and details of the decolonization process which need to be emphasized.
Counsel for Morocco in his oral argument before the Court stated:

"Even in the event that the General Assembly should decide that for
the implementation of the principle of self-determination, a referendum
should be held, even in such a case, it would be useful to know whether,
bearing in mind the existen.ceof legal ties with a country at the time of
colonization of this territory by.Spain, it would not be as well to lay

before the populations the problem of their future re-attachment, of
their return, or on the contrary of their detachment from, ex hypothesi,
their former mother country." (Hearing of 26 June 1975.)

"... thisproblem of thewordingof thequestionsto be put in somefuture
referendum is to some extent clarijied by the need for the General
Assembly to be inpossession of al1the elements ofthis matter. . ." (ibid.)
(emphasisadded).

The Court, havingreachedthe correctconclusion that there wereno legalties
of such anatureas might "affect the application of resolution 1514(XV)and,

in particular, of theapplication of theprinciple of self-determination throiigh
the free and genuine expression of the will of the peoples of the territory"
would appear to be justified in proceeding further by indicating the extent
to which those legal ties that did exist could have a bearing on the
decolonization process and if so what concrete shape it could take.

Those legal ties which the Court found to exist at the time of Spanish
colonization between Western Sahara and Morocco or Mauritania were not
of such a character asto justify today the reintegration or retrocession of the
territory withoutconsultingthe people.Themainreason for this conclusion is
simply that, at the timeof Spanishcolonization, there was no evidence of the SAHARA OCCIDENTAL(DÉCL.NAGENDRA SINGH) 79
fondement de l'autodétermination,iln'estpeut-êtrepas inutilede chercherà

mieux cerner la nature et le caractère des liens juridiques qui constituent
l'objet de la question II de la résolution 3292 (XXIX) de l'Assemblée
généralep , ar laquelle la Cour a été saisiede la présente requpour avis
consultatif. Sans paraître sortir de son rôle judiciaire, un tribunal peut
préciserl'effetdeceslienssurladécolonisation,quidemeurelebutet lethème
essentieldestravaux en cours àl'Assemblée généraleC. 'estlà un aspect vital
qui doit être énoncéen détailet sans équivoqueafin d'éclairerl'Assemblée
générale.
En outre, d'autres aspects, peut-être tout aussi importants, méritentde
retenir l'attention et doivent êtresoulignéscomme il convient pour que la
portéedel'avisconsultatif soitpleinementappréciée.Cesaspectsessentiels à
mesyeuxsont brièvementindiquésci-dessous.

Le Maroc et la Mauritanie ont évoqué l'un etl'autre certains aspects et
détailspertinentsdu processusde décolonisationqu'ilimporte de releverici.
Danssonexposéoral, l'undesconseilsdu Maroc s'estexpriméencestermes:

«D'ailleurs, mêmedans l'hypothèseoù l'Assembléegénéraledéci-
derait que, pour la miseen Œuvredu principe de la libre détermination,
ilconvientderecourir àun référendumd ,ans cecas-làaussibien,ilserait
utile de savoir si,compte tenu de l'existencede liensjuridiques avec un
pays au moment de la colonisation par l'Espagne de ce territoire, il ne
conviendrait pas de poseraux populations le problèmedeleurrattache-

ment, de leur retour, ou au contraire de leur détachement,e qui, par
hypothèse, serait leur ancienne mère patrie.» (Audience du 26juin
1975.)
«ce problèmede l'aménagement desquestions dans un éventuelréfé-
rendumest donc éclairéd ,ans unecertaine mesure,par la nécessitpour

l'Assembléegénérale d'êtreaucourantde toutes lesdonnéesde l'aflaire»
(ibid.(lesitaliquessont de moi).
La Cour, étantparvenue à bon droità la conclusion qu'il n'existait pas de
liensjuridiques«denature à modifierl'applicationde la résolution151..et
en particulier l'application du principe d'autodéterminaton grâce'expres-

sion libre et authentique de la volontédespopulations du territoire»,paraît
être fondée à aller plus loin pour indiquer dans quelle mesure les liens
juridiques qui existaient en fait pourraient avoir une incidence sur le
processus de décolonisationet, dans cecas,sousquelleformeconcrète.
Cesliensjuridiques entre leSahara occidental etleMarocou la Mauritanie
dont la Cour a constatél'existenceau moment de la colonisation espagnole
n'étaientpas tels qu'ils puissent justifieraujourd'hui la réintégrationou la
rétrocession du territoire sans consultation de ses habitants. La raison
essentielledecetteconclusion estsimplementlasuivante: rien n'indiquequ'à80 WESTERNSAHARA (DECL.NAGENDRA SINGH)

existence of one single State comprising the territory of Western Sahara and
Morocco, or Western Sahara and Mauritania, which would have been
dismembered by the colonizer and thus justify reunion on decolonization at

the present time. Accordingly, thefactsand circumstances of this case would
not attract the provisions of paragraph 6 of resolution 1514 (XV) which
holds dismption of national unity or territorial integrity of a country as
incompatible with the Charter pf the United Nations and thus points to
reintegration of territory. Nevertheless, as the Court finds that-there were

certain legal ties in existence, it becomes necessary to proceed to assessthem
withthesole purpose of evaluating them to ascertain ifthey indicate a definite
step in terms of the decolonization process. In shortthe strength and efficacy
of thesetiesthough limited must stillbe held to be of such an order asto point
in the direction of the possible options which could be afforded to the
population in ascertaining the will of the people. These options, in

accordance with resolution 1541 (XV) as wellas 2625(XXV),could be either
integration with Morocco or with Mauritania or having freeassociation with
any one of them or for opting in favour of a sovereignindependent status of
the territory. Even if it conceded that the procedures for decolonization lie
within the exclusive province of the General Assembly it is yet appropriate
fora court to point out the relationship between the existence of the legalties

and the decolonization process in order fully to enlighten the General
Assembly. To do so is not to trespass on the prerogatives of the General
Assembly but to fulfil the role as the principal judicial organ of the United
Nations.
There are some valid reasons for going this farbut no farther. First, taking
into consideration the very raison d'êtreofresolution 3292(XXIX) it isclear

what the General Assemblyexpects inthe answer to Question II istheCourt's
appraisal of the nature of these legal ties "which must be understood as
referring tosuch legal ties as may materially affect the method or the policies
and procedures to be applied in the decolonization of WesternSahara". If the
Courtcannot be "unmindful of the purpose for which itsopinion issought" it

stands to reason that while remaining well within its judicial bounds the
Court should proceed far enough to make clear those aspects of the available
options which are open to the people of the territory in any method of their
consultation particularly when the Court holds that consultation isessential.
Thesecond reason isthat there have been specificpleadings on this matter
both by Morocco and Mauritania, as cited above, and these need not be

totally ignored.

The Court has recognized the validity of the principle of self-

determination, "defined as the need to pay regard to the freely expressed
will of the peoples". Furthermore the Court has rightly concluded that the
need for ascertaining the freely expressed willof the people is not in any way
affected by the present request of the General Assembly for an advisoryl'époquede lacolonisation espagnole un seul Etat,englobant lesterritoires du
Sahara occidental et du Maroc, ou le Sahara occidental et la Mauritanie, ait
été démembré par le colonisateur, fait qui justifierait sa reconstitution au

stade actuel de la décolonisation. Par suite, les circonstances de l'espèce
sortent du cadre du paragraphe 6 de la résolution1514 (XV), selon lequel la
destruction de l'uniténationale et de l'intégritéterritoriale d'un pays est
incompatible avec la Charte des Nations Unies, ce qui militerait donc en
faveur d'une réintégration. Néanmoins, puisqulea Cour constate l'existence
de certains liensjuridiques, il devient nécessaired'examiner ces liens à seule

fin d'apprécier l'importance qu'ils peuvent revêtirdans le processus de
décolonisation et de rechercher s'ils appellent l'adoption d'une mesure
précise.En un mot, la force et l'effectivitéde ces liens, bien que limitées,
doivent êtreconsidéréescomme pouvant donnerune indication de9options
qui pourraient êtreoffertes à la population afin qu'elle exprime sa volonté.
Conformément aux résolutions 1541 (XV) et 2625 (XXV), ces options

pourraient êtresoit l'intégration au Maroc ou à la Mauritanie, soit la libre
association avec l'un de ces deux Etats, soit encore le choix d'un statut
souverain et indépendant pour le territoire. Mêmesi l'on admet que les
méthodesde décolonisationsont du ressort exclusif de l'Assemblée générale,
il appartient cependant à un tribunal de souligner les rapports entre l'exis-
tence de liens juridiques .et le processus de décolonisation,afin d'éclairer

pleinement l'Assemblée.Agir ainsi, ce n'estpas empiétersur lesprérogatives
de l'Assemblée,mais remplir le rôle qui incombe à la Cour comme organe
judiciaire principal des Nations Unies.
Il existe d'excellentes raisons d'aller jusque-là mais pas plus loin. Tout
d'abord, si l'on tient compte de la raison d'être mêmdee la résolution3292
(XXIX), il est clair que ce que l'Assembléegénéraleattend, en réponseà la
question II,c'estune évaluationpar la Cour de la nature des liensjuridiques

«qui pourraient influer sur la politique à suivre pour la décolonisation du
Sahara occidental ».S'il estvrai que «la Courne saurait oublier l'objeten vue
duquel l'avis est sollicit», il va sans dire que sans sortir de son rôle de
tribunal elle peut aller jusqu'à éclairerces aspects des options ouvertes à la
population du territoire, quel que soit le mode de consultation, à fortiori
quand la Cour juge cette consultation essentielle.

La seconde raison est que le Maroc et la Mauritanie ont l'un et l'autre
plaidé cet aspect de la question, comme on l'a vu, et qu'il ne faudrait pas
totalement le méconnaître.

La Cour a reconnu la validitédu principe de l'autodétermination,« défini
comme répondant à la nécessitéde tenir compte de la volonté librement
expriméedes peuples ».Elle a en outre conclu àjuste titre que la demande
d'avis ne diminue en rien la nécessitéde déterminer la voIontélibrement
expriméede la population. A mon sens, la consultation des habitants du81 WESTERNSAHARA(DECL.NAGENDRA SINGH)

opinion. In my opinion the consultation of the people of the territory
awaiting decolonization is an inescapable imperative whether the method
followed on decolonization is integration or association or independence.

This is established by not only the general provisionsof the United Nations
Charter but also by specific resolutions of the General Assembly on this
subject.Apart from Articles 1,2,55 and 56of the Charter and paragraphs 2
and 5of resolution 1514(XV)which bring out this aspectgenerallythere are
also specific provisions such as contained in principles VI1 and IX of
resolution 1541(XV) which categorically state "integration should be the

result of the freely expressed wishes of the territory's peoples". It is principle
VI (c)of resolution 1541(XV) which prescribes integration as a method of
decolonization and principle IX (b)imposes the condition of consultation of
thepeople as the means ofachievingself-determination by integration. Again
resolution 2625 (XXV) concerning friendly relations goes a long way to
further emphasizethe point that on decolonization the "emergence into any

political status" has to be "freely determined by a people". Thus even if
integration ofterritory wasdemanded by an interestedState, as in thiscase,it
could not be had without ascertaining the freely expressed will of the
people - the very sinequa non of al1decolonization.

However, 1am in agreement with the clarification given by the Court to

that aspect of the matter which relates to certain cases in which the General
Assembly has dispensed with the requirement of consulting the inhabitants
of a given territory. It follows, in my view, that the principle of self-
determination could be dispensed with only if the free expression of the
will of the people was found to be axiomatic in the sense that the result was
known to be a foregone conclusion or that consultations had already taken

place in some form or that special features of the case rendered it
unnecessary. Such exceptionalcircumstances are possible and could existbut
they do not appearto be present in this case so asto do away with thesalutary
principle of ascertainment of the freely expressed will of the people of the
territory who could, on consultations, elect to integrate with any one of the
adjoining interested States if they so desired.
Again, cases falling under paragraph 6 of resolution 1514would remain

outside this rule. In any event,asstated earlier,the facts disclosed here do not
point to the application of that particular provision of theaid resolution.

III

Another aspect which is equally important to me relates to the Court's

observationsconcerning respect for the fundamental principle of consent to
jurisdiction if in any case the requirement of such consent was circumvented
by resorting to the advisory proceedings of the Court. In this case Spain has
not givenitsconsenttoadjudication of thequestionsformulated in resolution
3292 (XXIX). Furthermore, it did not agree to Morocco's proposa1 to move
the Court in contentious proceedings. It was necessary, therefore, for theterritoire en instance de décolonisation est un impératif absolu, que la
méthodesuivie pour la décolonisation soit I'intégration,l'association ou

l'indépendance.C'estcequi ressortnon seulementdesdispositionsgénérales
de la Charte des Nations Unies mais aussi de résolutions particulièresde
l'Assemblée généraleconsacrées à cesujet.Outrelesarticles1,2,55 et56dela
Charte et les paragraphes 2 et 5 de la résolution1514(XV),qui insistent de
manièregénéralesur cet aspect,on trouvedesdispositionsexpressescomme
lesprincipes VI1et IX de la résolution1541(XV),quiénoncent catégorique-
mentquela libreassociation ouI'intégration«doitrésulterdudésirlibrement
exprimédespopulations duterritoire ».C'estleprincipe VIc)dela résolution
1541(XV)quireconnaît quel'intégration peut êtreuneméthod deedécoloni-
sation et le principe IX b)oblige à consulter la population pour réaliser
l'autodéterminationpar cettevoie.Demême larésolution2625(XXV)surles
relations amicales revient sur la question pour souligner que lors de la
décolonisation l'aboutissement à un statut politique quelconque doit être
((librement décidépar un peuple ».Ainsi, alors mêmeque l'un des Etats
intéressésrevendique l'intégrationd'un territoire, comme dans la présente

affaire, on ne saurait procédersans s'êtreassuréde la volonté librement
expriméedeshabitants - cequiconstituelesinequa nondetoutedécolonisa-
tion.
Je suis néanmoins d'accord avecles éclaircissementsdonnéspar la Cour
sur certains cas où l'Assembléegénéralen'a pas cru devoir consulter les
habitants d'unterritoire.lenrésulteselonmoiqueleprincipe del'autodéter-
mination n'estécarté que dans la mesure où l'onconsidèrecommeallant de
soilalibreexpression dela volontédela population, encesensque i'onsaitle
résultat acquis d'avance ouque des consultations ont déjàeu lieu sous une
formequelconqueouencorequecertainesparticularitésrendentcetteconsul-
tation superflue. Descirconstances aussiexceptionnellessont possibles;elles
peuvent serencontrer, mais ellesne sont pas présentesdans l'affaireactuelle
au point que l'onpuisseécarterleprincipesalutaire dela déterminationdela
volontélibrementexprimée delapopulation duterritoirequi, consultée,peut,

siellelesouhaite,choisir de s'intégrern'importe lequeldes Etats intéressés
avoisinants.
Je répèteque les cas relevant du paragraphe 6 de la résolution 1514
échappent àcette règle.Detoute façon, commeon l'avu, lesfaits dela cause
ne paraissent pas appeler l'application de cettedisposition particulière.

III

Un autre aspect qui me paraît égalementimportant concerne les obser-
vations formuléespar la Cour au sujet du principe fondamental du consen-
tement à lajuridiction dans lecas où l'onutiliserait la voieconsultativepour
éluderlanécessitédececonsentement.Danslaprésenteaffaire,l'Espagnen'a
pas consentià ceque lesquestionsénoncées dans la résolution3292(XXIX)
soientportéesdevantlaCour. Ellen'avait pasaccepténonpluslaproposition
marocaine de saisir la Cour au contentieux.11incombait donc àla Cour de 82 WESTERN SAHARA (DECL. NAGENDRA SINGH)

Court to clarifythe legalposition resultingfrom the Spanishcontention that
there waslack ofconsent to invoketheCourt'sjurisdiction. Theconclusion is
warranted that although there are two distinct channels of the Court's
jurisdiction, namely advisory and contentious and although "consent of
States, parties to a dispute,is the basis of the Court's jurisdiction in
contentious cases while the situation is different in regard to advisory
proceedings" since the Court's reply is only of an "advisory character" and
given "not to States but to the organ entitled to request" (I.C.JReports
1950, p. 71), there could still be certain circumstances in which lack of
consent of an interested State could render the givingof an advisoryopinion
incompatible with the Court's judicial character. The Court, therefore, has

stated that if a request for an advisory opinion was made in circumstances
which clearly disclosedthat the intention or therpose was to circumvent
the principle of consent a situation would arise in which "the powersof the
Court under the discretion given to it by Article 65, paragraph 1, of the
Statute would afford sufficient legal means to ensure respect for the
fundamental principle of consent tojurisdiction".
No suchbypassing of thissalutary principlehas taken place in thepresent
proceedings because the object of the request for an opinion has been to
obtain from the Court legaldvicewhichtheGeneral Assemblyconsidersof
assistance in the discharge of its functions in relation to the pending
decolonization ofaterritory. Whatisofimportance,therefore, inthiscontext

is the recognition given to the principle of judicial propriety which would
oblige the Court to refuse an opinion on the ground of the existence ofa
"compelling reason" for doing so, if the purpose behind the request for an
opinion was to defeat the principle that a State is not obliged to submit
disputes to judicial settlement without its consent. This also enlightens the
General Assembly in the use of Article 96 of the Charter by asserting that
consent of an interested State still continues to be relevant even in advisory
proceedings, "for the appreciation of the propriety of givingan opinion".

M. AMMOUNV , ice-Président, MM. FORSTERP , ETRÉN,DILLARD, DE

CASTRO j, ges, et M. BONI,juge ad hoc, joignent àl'avis consultatif les
exposésde leur opinion individuelle.

M. RUDA,juge, joint à l'avis consultatif l'exposé de son opinion
dissidente.

(Paraphé)M.L.

(Paraphé)S.A.préciser lasituation en droit, l'Espagne soutenant qu'ylavait absence de
consentement à la juridiction de la Cour. S'il est vrai qu'il y a deux voies
d'accès distinctesla Cour, la voieconsultative et la voiecontentieuse, et que
le consentement des Etats parties à un différend est le fondement de la

juridiction enmatière contentieuse alors qu'il en est autrement en matière
d'avis,puisque l'avisde la Cour n'a qu'unaractèreconsultatif »et qu'il est
donné «non awrEtats, mais àl'organe habilitépour lelui demander »(C.I.J.
Recueil1950,p. 74Qilestjustifiéde conclure quedans certainescirconstances
le défaut de conse&m@ d'un Etat-intéressépourrait rendre le prononcé
d'un avisconsultatif incompatible avec lecaractèrejudiciaire de la Cour. La
Coura donc déclaré qu&une demande d'avis consultatif était faitedans des

circonstances indiquant clairement quel'intention ou lebut étaitdetourner le
principe du consentement, il en résulterait une situation dans laquelle le
« pouvoir discrétionnaire que la ~ou$?ient de l'arti65, paragraphe 1, du
Statut fournirait des moyens juridiques suffisants pour assurer le respect du
principe fondamental du consentement à lajuridiction ».

Ce principe salutaire n'a pas été élén l'espèceattendu que la demande

d'avis visait obtenir de la Cour des conseils juridiques que l'Assemblée
généraleestimaitutiles pour exercer sesfonctions en vue de la décolonisation
prochaine d'un territoire. L'important dans ce contexte est donc d'avoir
reconnu que des considérationsd'opportunitéjudiciaire constitueraient une
raison« décisive» de refuser d'émettreun avis, si lebut de la requêteétaitde
tourner le principe suivant lequel un Etat n'est pas tenu de soumettre ses

différends au règlement judiciaire contre sa volonté. La Cour renseigne
d'autre part l'Assembléegénéralsur l'application de l'art96lde la Charte
en déclarant que le consentement d'un Etat reste pertinent, en matière
consultative,«pour appréciers'ilest opportun de rendre un avis ».

Vice-President AMMOUN,Judges FORSTERP , ETRÉN,DILLARD and DE
CASTRO and Judge ad lzocBONI append separate opinions to the Opinion
of the Court.

Judge RUDA appends a dissenting opinion to the Opinion of the Court.

(Initialled) ML.

(Initialled)S.A.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Advisory Opinion of 16 October 1975

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