Advisory Opinion of 8 June 1960

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043-19600608-ADV-01-00-EN
Document Type
Date of the Document
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Bilingual Document File

INTERNATIONAL COURTOF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CONSTITUTION OF THE
MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE OF THE

INTER-GOVERNMENTAL MARITIME
CONSULTATIVE ORGANIZATION

ADVISORY OPINION OF 8 JUNE 1960

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

COMPOSITION DU COMITÉ DE LA
SÉCURITÉ MARITIME DE L'ORGANISATION

INTERGOUVERNEMEPJTALE CONSULTATIVE
DE LA NAVIGATION MARITIME

AVIS CONSULTATIFDU 8JUIN 1960 This Opinion should be cited as follows:

"Constitution of the Maritime Safety Cornmitteeof the Inter-Govern-
mental Maritime Consultative Organization,
Advisoïy Opinion of 8 June 1960: I.C.J. Reeorts 1960, p. 150."

Le présent avis doit ktre citécomme suit:

((Composition du Comitéde la Sécuritémaritime de l'Organisation
intergouvernementale consultativede la Navigation maritime,

Avis consultatif du 8 juin 1960: C. I. J. Recueil 1960, p. 150. ))

Sales number
No de vente : INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

1960
8 June YEAR 1960
GeneraList:
No. 43 8 June 1960

CONSTITUTION OF THE
MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE OF THE

INTER-GOVERNMENTAL MARITIME

CONSULTATIVE ORGANIZATION

Interpretation of Convention for Establishment of Inter-Govern-
mental Maritime Consultative0rganization.-Confor election

to Maritime Safety Cornmittee.-"Largest ship-owning nations9'.-
"Importantinterest in maritime sajetyu.-Compliance with latter
qualificationimplied in caseoflargestship-owzingnations.-Meaning
of "elected"in Articlea) of Convention.-Words connotingobjec-
tive testcluding discretionarychoice.-Registered gross tonnage as
criterion.

ADVISORY OPINION

Present:PresidentKLAESTA D Vice-PresidenZAFRULLA KHAN ;

Judges BASDEVANT ,ACKWORTH W,INIARSKI,BADAWI,
ARMAND-UGON,KO JEVNIKOV, MORENO QUINTANA,
CORDOVAW , ELLINGTON KOO, SPIROPOULOS ,ir Percy
SPENDER,ALFARO; Deputy-RegistraGARNIER-COIGNET. In the matter of the Constitution of the Maritime Safety Com-
mittee of the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organi-
zation,

composed as above,

gives the following Advisory Opinion :
By a letter dated 23 March 1959, filed in the Registry on 25
March, the Secretary-General of the Inter-Governmental Maritime
Consultative Organization informed the Court that, by a Resolution
adopted on 19 January 1959, a certified true copy of which was
transmitted with the Secretary-General's letter, the Assembly of
the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization had
decided to request the Court to give an Advisory Opinion on the

question set out in the Resolution, which was in the following
terms :
"The Assembly

Consideringthat differencesof opinion have arisen asto the inter-
of the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization;ment

Consideringthat the Convention provides in Article 56 that
questions of law may be referred to the International Court of
Justice for an advisory opinion;
Resolves

To submit to the International Court of Justice, in accordance
with Article 65,paragraph 2,of its Statute, a request for an advisory
opinion on the following question of law:
1s the Maritime Safety Committee of the Inter-Governmental
Maritime Consultative Organization, which was elected on
15 January 1959c ,onstituted in accordance with the Convention
for the Establishment of the Organization?
Instr~cts the Secretary-General to place at the disposal of the
Court the relevant records of the Firs.tAssemblyof the Organization
and its Committees; and in accordance with Article IX of the
Agreement between the United Nations and the Inter-Govern-
mental Maritime Consultative Organization to inform the Economic
and SocialCouncilof the United Nations of the present resolution."

In accordance with Article 66, paragraph 1,of the Statute of the

Court, notice of the request for an Advisory Opinion was on 9April
1959 given to all States entitled to appear before the Court.
The Secretary-General of the Inter-Governmental Maritime
Consultative Organization having on 14 July 1959 transmitted to152 MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)

the Court the documents likely to throw light upon the question,
and the President considering that the States Members of the
Organization as well as the Organization itself were likely to be
able to furnish information on the question, those States and the
Organization were on 5 August 1959 informed in accordance with
Article 66, paragraph 2, of the Statute that the Court would be
prepared to receive written statements from them within a time-
limit, fixed by an Order of the same date, at j December 1959.
Written statements were received on behalf of the Governments of
Belgium, France, Liberia, the United States of America, the Re-
public of China, Panama, Switzerland, Italy, Denmark, the Vnited
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Norway, the
Netherlands, and India.

These written statements were communicated to the Inter-
Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization and to the
States Members of the Organization. Public hearings were held on
26, 27, 28 and 29 April, and on 2, 3 and 4 May 1960, when the
Court was addressed by the following:

The Honourable Rocheforte L. Weeks, formerAssistant Attorney-
General, President of the University of Liberia, and
The Honourable Edward R. Moore, Assistant Attorney-General,
representing the Government of Liberia;
Dr. Octavio Fabrega, President of the National Council of
Foreign Affairs, in the capacity of Ambassador Extraordinary and
Plenipotentiary on Special Mission, representing the Government

of Panama ;
The Honourable Eric H. Hager, Legal Adviser of the Department
of State, representing the Government of the United States of
America ;
M. Riccardo Monaco, Professor of the University of Rome, Chief
of the Department of Contentious Matters of the Ministry for
Foreign Affairs, representing the Government of Italy;
Mr. W. Riphagen, Professor of International Law at Rotterdam,
Legal Adviser of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, representing the
Government of the Netherlands;

Mr. Finn Seyersted, Director of Legal Affairs in the Norwegian
Ministry for Foreign Affairs, representing the Government of
Norway ;
Mr. F. A. Vallat, Deputy Legal Adviser to the Foreign Office,
representing the Government of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland.

The question submitted to the Court in the Request for an
Advisory Opinion, cast though it is in a general form, is directed
6153 MARITIME SAFETY COMM-ITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)

to a particular case, and may beformulated in the followingmanner :
has the Assembly, in not electing Liberia and Panama to the
Maritime Safety Committee, exercised its electoral power in a
manner in accordance with the provisions of Article 28 (a) of the
Convention of 6 March 1948 for the Establishment of the Inter-
Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization?
The Statements submitted to the Court have shown that linked
with the question put to it there are others of a political nature.
The Court as a judicial body is however bound, in the exercise of
its advisory function, to remain faithful to the requirements of its
judicial character.

The Convention referred to in the Request for an Advisory

Opinion establishes a body known as the Inter-Governmental
Maritime Consultative Organization (hereinafter called "the Or-
ganization"). Its purposes areset out in ArticleIof the Convention,
the most important of which is concerned with maritime safety and
efficiencyof navigation.
The Organization consists of an Assembly, a Council, a.Maritime
Safety Committee and such subsidiary organs as the Organization
may at any time consider necessary, and a Secretariat.

The Assembly consists of ail the Members of the Organization
meeting in regular sessiononce every two years. Among its functions
is "to elect ...the Maritime Safety Committee as provided in
Article 28" (Art.16 (d)).
The Council consists of sixteen Members. Its principal functions
are to receive the recommendations of the Maritime Safety Com-
mittee, and to transmit them to the Assembly or to the Members
when the Assembly is not in session, together with its own corn-
ments and recommendations. Matters within the scope O£ the duties
of the Maritime Safety Committee may be considered by the Council

only after obtaining the views of that Committee thereon (Art. 22).
The Maritime Safety Committee's principal duties are set out in
Article 29.They include the consideration of any matter within the
scope of the Organization and concerned with aids to navigation,
construction and equipment of vessels, manning from a safety
standpoint, rules for prevention of collisions, handling of dangerous
cargoes, maritime safety procedures and requirements and any
other matters directly affecting marïtime safety. It is called upon
to maintain close relationship with such other inter-governmental
bodies concerned with transport and communications as may
further the object of the Organization in promoting maritime
safety.154 MARITI31E SAFETY COMMITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)

The composition of the Committee and the mode of designating
its Members are governed by Article 28 (a) which reads as follows:

"The Maritime Safety Committee shall consist of fourteen
Members elected by the Assembly from the Members,governments
of those nations having an important interest in maritime safety,
of which not lesshan eight shall be the largest ship-owning nations,
andthe remainder shall be elected so asto ensure adequate represen-
tation of Members, govemments of other nations with an important
interest in maritime safety, such as nations interested in the supply
berthed and unberthed passengers, and of major geographical areas."

The Court is called upon to appreciate whether, in not electing
Liberia and Panama to the Maritime Safety Committee, the Assem-
bly complied with that provision. For this purpose, the Court must,
in the first place, recallthe circumstances in which the Assembly
proceeded to the election of the Committee and asked for an
advisory opinion.
The Assembly began its consideration of the election of members
of the Maritime Safety Committee on 14 January 1959. It had
before it a working paper prepared by the Secretary-General of
the Organization, headed as follows:

"Election of Members of the Maritime Safety Committee, as
provided in Article28 of the Convention.
Merchant fleet of the IMCO Members according to the Lloyd's
Register of Shipping Statistical tables 1958."

Thereunder were set out, in descending order of total gross reg-
istered tonnage, the names of Members with the figures of their
registered tonnage.On this listLiberia was third and Panama eighth.
The Assembly also had before it a draft United Kingdom re-
solution which was in the following terms:

"The Assembly,

Desiring to elect the eight Members of the Maritime Safety
Committee which shall be the largest ship-owning nations,

Having taken note of the list prepared by the Secretary-General
(doc. IMCO/A. 11Working Paper 5) showing the registered tonnage
of each Member of the Organization
8 Resolves
that a separate vote shall be taken for eachof the eight places
on the Committee ;
that the voting shall be in the order in which the nations
appear in the Secretary-General'slist, and

that those eight nations which first receive a majority of votes
in favour shall be declared elected."

The representative of the Government of Liberia submitted both
a separate draft Resolution and an amendment to that of the
United Kingdom, to the effect that for the purposes of Article
28 (a) the eight largest ship-owning nations should be determined
by reference to the figures for gross registered tonnage as they
appeared in Lloyd's Register of Shipping current at the date of the
election. He submitted that Article 28 (a) laid down the rules to be
followed for electing members of the Committee and that these
rules ha-dto be strictly observed. Under Article 28(a) the Assembly
had to elect the eight largest ship-owning nations. That, he sub-
mitted, was not an election in the usual sense of the word, for
once those eight nations had been determined, the Assembly was

bound to elect them. The representative of Panama supported
these submissions.
There was no challenge that the figures in the Secretary-General's
Working Paper, which were identical with the figures shown in the
latest issue of Lloyd'sRegisterofShipeing and which setout country
by country the gross registered tonnage of each nation, were in
any way incorrect.
The Government of the United States submitted a proposa1 to
defer the election of the Committee until the Assembly's second
regular session and in the meantime to establish a provisional
Committee open to al1 the Members of the Assembly.
The Liberian Government's amendment to the United King-
dom's draft resolution was replaced by a joint amendment of that
Government and the United States of America which was essen-
tially in the same terms. Neither the proposa1 of the United States
nor the joint amendment was adopted by the Assembly.
At the meeting of 15 January 1959, the Assembly adopted the
United Kingdom draft resolution, thus expressing, according to

the terms of the Resolution, its desire "to elect the eight Members
of the Maritime Safety Committee which shall be the largest ship-
owning nations". The President asked the Assembly to vote on the
eight countries to be elected under Article 28(a) country by country
in the order given in the Lloyd's Register of ShiPPing Statistical
Tables 1958. Liberia and Panama failed to be elected, the votes
being, respectively, eleven in favour and fourteen against, with
three abstentions, and nine in favour and fourteen against, with
five abstentions. Liberia and Panama abstained on the latter vote,on the ground that from the moment Liberia failed to be elected
they considered the election was nul1 and void.

At its next meeting, held the same day, the Assembly elected
the other six Members of the Committee.
After the election had taken place, the Assembly proceeded to
consider a draft resolution by Liberia tothe effect that the Assembly
should request an advisory opinion from this Court on the legal
issues which had arisen in connection with the interpretation of
Article 28 (a), and should ask a Committee to formulate the ques-
tions to be put to the Court and refer the matter back to the Assem-
bly for approval. The draft Liberian resolution was approved in
principle. On 19 January 1959 the Assembly adopted the Reso-
lution set out in the Request for an Opinion.

The debates which took place prior to the election revealed a
wide divergence of views on the relevant requirements of Article
28 (a).
The United Kingdom representative, speaking at the seventh
meeting of the Assembly, held on 14 January 1959, stated:

"The United Kingdom delegation felt it would be wrong for the
the special position of Liberia and Panama. There was clearly noly,
question of dealing with the problem of flags of convenience, which
lay outside the limits of discussion. What the Assembly had to do
was to choose eight countries which, on the one hand, had an impor-
tant interest in maritime safety and, on the other hand, were the
largest ship-owning nations, as these were the criteria laid down in
Article 28 of the Convention."
"...What the Assembly had to do was to consider how far govem-
ments were interested in maritime questions and to see to what
extent they were able to make a contribution in various fields
connected with safety ... It was obvious that in al1 those fields
neither Liberia nor Panama was, at the moment, in a position to
make any important contribution to maritime safety ..."
"As to the second criterion he had mentioned, namely, relative
importance as a ship-owning nation, he would emphasize that that
clear. Vesselshad really to belong to the countries in question, which
was obviously not the case with Panama and Liberia."
"Thus, neither from the point of view of interest in maritime
safety nor from that of tonnage could Liberia or Panama be included
amongst the eight maritime countries referred to in Article 28 (a)
of the Convention."

He added that according to the Convention those eight places
should be allotted to the largest ship-owning nations, but that did
not necessarily mean those countries whose fleets represented the largest gross registered tonnage. The names and nationalities of
the owners or shareholders of the shipping companies should not
be taken into account in that connection, as that would introduce

an unnecessarily complicated criterion.

The representative of the Netherlands stated that the concept of
the largest ship-owning nations was not necessarily identical with
that of the nations having the largest registered tonnage; on the
contrary, a country's registered tonnage might in no way reflect
its actual importance as a ship-owning nation.

The argument was also put forward that the members to be
elected to the Maritime Safety Committee "on the strength of their
tonnage" should be those nations which were in a position to make
a contribution to the work of the Cornmittee through their know-
ledge and experience in the field of maritime safety, which re-
quirement Liberia and Panama did not fulfil.
For his part, the representative of the United States of America
explained the way in which that country interpreted Article 28 (a).

He stated:
"That Article called on the Assembly to elect from among the
Member Governments which had an important interest in maritime
safety the eight nations which were the largest shipowners, as shown
by the statistical tables inLloyd's Registe...Article 28 stipulated
that no less than eight should be 'the largest ship-owning nations'
and not merely 'large ship-owningnations' ...they should be elected
automatically."
Later he said that he could not accept the argument advanced
by the United Kingdom representative to the effect that the ability
of countries to contribute to the work of the Maritime Safety Com-
mittee by their expert knowledge and experience was a criterion of
eligibilityseparate from that of status as one of the largest ship-
owning nations. In no circumstances should the two nations whose
combined registered tonnage represented 15 per cent. of the active
fleet of the entire world be excluded from membership of the
Cornmittee.

Other States, Members of the Assembly, participated in the
debate, but in so far as they expressed any views on the inter-
pretation to be placed upon Article 28 (a) these appear to be re-
flected in the statements above referred to.
Itis in these circumstances that the question whether the Maritime
Safety Committee was constituted in accordance with Article 28 (a)
comes before the Court.

The Court will now proceed to consider the answer which should
be given to the question submitted to it. One of the functions of the Assembly is, in accordance with
Article 16 (d) of the Convention, "to elect the Members ...on the
Maritime Safety Committee as provided in Article 28". The scope
and character of this function of the Assembly are accordingly to
be found in Article 28. This function can only be exercised under
the conditions laid down by that Article.
Article 28 (a) provides that the fourteen Members of the Com-
mittee shall be elected by the Assembly from the Members, Govern-
ments of those nations having an important interest in maritime
safety, of which not less than eight shall be the largest ship-owning
nations. The remainder of the members are to be elected so as to

ensure adequate representation of other nations with an important
interest in maritime safety such as nations interested in supplying
large numbers of crews or in the carriage of large numbers of pas-
sengers and of major geographical areas.

It has been contended before the Court that the Assembly was
entitled to refuse to elect Liberia and Panama, by virtue of a
discretion claimed to be vested in it under Article 28 (a). The sub-
stance of the argument is as follows: The Assembly is vested with
a discretionary power to determine which Members of the Organi-
zation have "an important interest in maritime safety" and con-
sequently in discharging its duty to elect the eight largest ship-
owning nations, it is empowered to exclude as unqualified for
election those nations that in its judgment do not have such an
interest. Furthermore, it was submitted that this discretionary
power extended also to the determination of which nations were

or were not "the largest ship-owning nations".

In the first place, it was sought to find in the expression "elected",
which applies to al1 Members of the Committee, a notion of choice
which was said to imply an individual judgment on each member
to be elected and a free appraisal as to the qualifications of that
member. This was said to apply to both the election of the eight
largest ship-owning nations and to that of the remainder of six.
The contention assumes a meaning to be accorded to the word
"elected" and then applies that meaning to Article 28 (a) and inter-
prets its provisions accordingly. In so doing it places in a subordinate
position the specificprovision of the Article in relation to the eight
"largest ship-owning nations".
The meaning of the word "elected" in the Article cannot be
determined in isolation by recourse to its usual or common meaning
and attaching that meaning to the word where used in the Article.

The word obtains its meaning from the context in which it is used.
If the context requires a meaning which connotes a wide choice,
it must be construed accordingly, just as it must be given a restric-
tive meaning if the context in which it is used so requires.
12159 MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)
An example is provided in Articles 16 (d) and 17 (4 and (d),

where the words "elect" and "elected" are also used. Whatever
the margin of choice or individual appraisal which exists in the
Assembly in relation to the election of any Member of the Council,
that margin of choice or appraisal is one which is no greater than
is permitted by the terms of those Articles read with Article 18.
The words "elect" and "elected" are construed accordingly.
So, too, in relation to the word "elected" in Article 28, where
first therein appearing. Here it is used for the designation of all
fourteen Members of the Committee, that is to Say, of the two
categories of Members, and for the first of these the words employed
are "shall be" which, on their face, are mandatory. If these words
involve an obligatory designation, to which question the Courtwill
hereafter direct itself, there is an evident contrast between, on the
one hand, such a designation and, on the other hand, a free choice.
If the words "cf which not less than eight shall be the largest
ship-owning nations" do involve an obligatory designation of such
nations that satisfy that qualification, the use of the word "elected"
to cover the designation of two categories, one of which would be
determined on the basis of a definite and pre-established criterion

whilst the other would be a matter of choice, cannot convert the
designation of the eight nations into an elective procedure which
would be contrary to the pre-established criterion.
In the second place it is contended that "having an important
interest in maritime safety" is a dominant condition in the qualifi-
cation for membership on the Committee and being one of the
"eight largest ship-owning nations" is a subordinate condition.
These two conditions are said to be of a cumulative character with
the possession of "an important interest" as the controlling re-
quirement. According to this view fulfilment alone of the condition
by any State of being one of the eight largest ship-owning nations
does not by itself confer eligibility on a Member State to be ap-
pointed to the Committee inasmuch as, it is contended, the word
"elected" connotes a discretion in the Assembly to choose from
among those qualified under the condition of having an important
interest in maritime safety.

It is further claimed that the words "ship-owning nations" have

a meaning which embraces consideration of many factors, and that
the Assembly was, in the exercise of its discretion, entitled to take
those factors into account in the election of the Committee.

The words of Article 28 (a) must be read in their natural and
ordinary meaning, in the sense which they would normally have in
their context. It is only if, when this is done, the words of theArticle are ambiguous in any way that resort need be had to other
methods of construction. (Competenceof the General Assembly for
the Admission of a State to the United Nations, I.C.J. Reports1950,

P From the terms of Article 28 (a) it is clear that the draftsmen
deliberately contemplated that the preponderant control of the

Committee was in al1 circumstances to be vested in "the largest
ship-owning nations". This control was to be secured by the pro-
vision that not less than eight of the fourteen seats had to be filled
by them. The language employed-"of which not less than eight
shall be the largest ship-owning nations"-in its natural and
ordinary meaning conveys this intent of the draftsmen.

The words "having an important interest in maritime safety"
clearly express a qualification for membership on the Committee
which is required of each group referred to in Article 28 (a). But,
in the context of the whole provision, possession of this interest is
implied in relation to the eight largest ship-owning nations as a
consequence of the language employed. This particular condition
of being one of the eight such nations describes the nature of the
required interest in maritime safety and constitutes that interest.

This interpretation accords with the structure of the Article.
Having provided that "not less than eight shall be the largest ship-
owning nations", the Article goes on to provide that the remainder
shall be elected so as to ensure adequate representation of "other
nations" with an important interest in maritime safety-nations
other than the eight largest ship-owning nations, "such as nations
interested in the supply of large numbers of crews" etc., as con-
trasted with "the largest ship-owning nations". The use of the
words "other nations" and "such as" in their context confirms
this interpretation.

The argument based on discretion would permit the Assembly,
in use only of its discretion, to decide through its vote which nations
have or do not have an important interest in maritime safety and

to deny membership on the Committee to any State regardless of
the size ofits tonnage or any other qualification. The effect of such
an interpretation would be to render superfluous the greater part
of Article 28(a) and to erect the discretion of the Assembly as the
supreme rule for the constitution of the Maritime Safety Committee.
This would in the opinion of the Court be incompatible with the
principle underlying the Article.

The underlying principle of Article 28 (a) is that the largest ship-
owning nations shall be in predominance on the Committee. No

14interpretation of the Article which is not consonant with this
pnnciple is admissible.
It was to express this principle that the words "of which not less
than eight shall be the largest ship-owning nations" were written
into the Article. These words cannot be construed as if they read
"of which not less than eight sha.ll represent (or be representative
of) the largest ship-owning nations". Whichever were the largest
ship-owning nations they were necessarily to be appointed to the
Committee; that they each possessed an important interest in
maritime safety was accepted as axiomatic; itwas inherent in their
status of the eight largest ship-owning nations.

* * *

The history of the Article and the debate which took place upon
the drafts of thesame in the United Maritime Consultative Council,
which at the request of the Economic and Social Council of the
United Nations drew up the text of the Convention for recom-
mendation to Member Governments, confirm the principle indicated
ab0i.e.
The first draft of the Article underwent a number of changes as
it evolved. As drafted in July 1946 by a Committee which met in
London, it read as follows:
"The Maritime Safety Committeeshall consist of twelve Member
Govemments selected by the Assembly from the Govemments of
those nations having an important interest in maritime safety and
owning substantial amounts of merchant shipping, of which no
less than nine shall be the largest ship-owning nations and the
remainder shall be selected so as toensure representation for the
major geographical areas. The Maritime Safety Committee shall
have power to adjust the number of its members with the approval
of the Council."
The nine largest ship-owning nations were self-evidently nations
owning substantial amounts of merchant shipping. The first nine
largest ship-owning nations were to be on the Committee in any
event. In this respect the use in the original English text of the

definite article "the", which is maintained throughout each draft
and finds expression in Article 28 (a), has a significance which
cannot be ignored. It was inserted with evident deliberation. This
accords with the record of the various drafts and the discussions
which took place on them.

The three nations representative of major geographical areas
comprising the "remainder" had to satisfy the dual qualification
15both of having an important interest in maritime safety and also
owning a substantial amount of shipping.

At this stage there was a deliberate intention on the part of the
drafters to confine the membership of the Committee to a very

limited number of nations and to have it controlled by the nine
largest ship-owning nations. This is apparent in the Report of the
Drafting Committee. This Report stated that the proposed Com-
mittee "will include the largest ship-owning nations" (as distinct
from nations owning substantial amounts of merchant shipping)
and that this "is of great importance to its successful operation".
Provision was also made, it continued, "for representation of other
ship-owning nations from al1 parts of the world" (other,as distinct
from the nine largest), "thus giving recognition to the world-wide
interest in the problems involved".

To have suggested that, although a nation was the largest or one
of the nine largest ship-owning nations it was within the discretion
of the Assembly to determine that it was not a nation "owning
substantial amounts of merchant shipping" or did not have an
''important interest in maritime safety" would have been unreal.

Those qualifications were patently inherent in a nation being one
of the nine largest ship-owning nations.

The second draft was submitted by the United States at the
Conference of the United Maritime Consultative Council held in
Washington in 1946. It followed the fo-rmof the first draft. Apart
from substituting the word "having" for "owning" substantial
amounts of merchant shipping, the substantive alteration was to
omit the provision in the Drafting Committee's draft which enabled
the Maritime Safety Committee to adjust the number of its Members
with the approval of the Council. The proportion between the largest
ship-owning nations and the remainder was to be unchangeable.
There was to be no freedom for the Members of the Assembly to
depart from what were contemplated to be clear provisions gov-
erning the proportion between the two.

This predominance on the Committee of the nine did not seem
acceptable to some Members of the Conference, India especially,
which had put forward to the Drafting Committee its own proposa1
which, however, that Committee had not felt empowered to sub-
stitute for the original wording of the Article because it invoked a
matter of principle.
A third draft was then put forward by the Drafting Committee,
which was in two versions. The first was based on the United
I6States' draft and, in fact, followed it word for word. It sought to
restrict the whole of the membership to nations having both im-
portant interests in maritime safety and substantial amounts of
shipping. The nine largest ship-owning nations spokefor themselves
in tenns of both these criteria but the remainder of three would
have to satisfy the Assembly that they qualified under both. The
intention of this draft was to confine the whole Committee to
nations having substantial amounts of shipping.

The alternative draft (submitted by the Drafting Committee
after discussion of the amendment proposed by India) is of special
importance. It reflects the struggle of those who sought to reduce
the predominance in the Maritime Safety Committee of the nine
largest ship-owning nations, and to prevent it from being under the
exclusive control of nations "having substantial amounts of ship-
ping". The Indian delegate was to point out during the debate on
the drafts, which took place in the United Maritime Consultative
Council on 28 October 1946, that other countries "who did not
actually own or have a large number of merchant vessels" had also
important interests in maritime safety.

The alternative draft accordingly struck out the words "and
having substantial amounts of shipping", retained the total mem-
bership at twelve, but altered the ratio between "the largest ship-
owning nations" and the remainder from nine and three to seven
and five.

This was the subject of debate at the meeting of the United
Maritime Consultative Council on 28 October 1946.
Objection was taken by the representative of Denmark to the
Indian proposal, on the ground that it meant that the Maritime
Safety Committee would be composed of twelve Member Govern-
ments of which not less than seven "would have to be the largest
ship-owning nationsJ'. He could not agree unless the total number
were increased to fourteen, "of which nine would have to be the
largest ship-owning nations". The Indian representative considered
that a ratio of seven (largest ship-owning nations) to five (other
nations) was a fair ratio. The United States representative said
that "the underlying principle which was generally accepted by
all" was that "the largest ship-owning nations should be in pre-
dominance in the Maritime Safety Committee".

In the result, the matter was held in abeyance for informa1 dis-

cussions between maritime experts from the United Kingdom and
the United States of America and representatives of Denmark and
India.
17 There emerged a final draft which followed the alternative draft,
and which increased thetotal membership to fourteen, of which not
less than eight were to be the largest ship-owning nations. This
draft \vas in the following terms:

"The Maritime Safety Committee shall consist of fourteen Mem-
ber Govemments selected by the Assembly from the Govemments
of those nations having an important interest in maritime safety,
of which not less than eight shall be the largest ship-owningnations,
and the remainder shall be selected so as to ensure adequate repre-
sentation of other nations with important interests in maritime
safety and of major geographical areas..."

This was the draft which came before the United Nations Mari-
time Conference at Geneva, held in February and March 1948, and
a working party on Maritime Safety was set up on 27 February.
At the meeting of the Working Party held on 28 February 1948, a
proposal was made by India to fashion the draft along the lines
of the present Article 17. It met with opposition and was rejected.
India then proposed the addition to the draft article of words to
the effect of those now appearing in the text of Article 28 (a),
namely, "such as nations interested in the supply of large numbers
of crews or in the carriage of large numbers ..of passengers". This
proposa1 was also rejected by the Working Party but was sub-
sequently incorporated in Article 28 (a)after the words "of other
nations with an important interest in maritime safety". The present
text in al1essential aspects was adopted on I March 1948 "subject ...
to drafting changes". No further discussions are recorded and the
text which presently appearsin the Convention was finally adopted
on 5 March 1948.

Cnder the first three drafts of the Article, the nine largest ship-
owning nations had in any event to be on the Committee. When
the subsequent drafts increased the total membership to fourteen,
altered the ratio on the Committee between the largest ship-owning
nations and other countries, and effected the other amendments

already indicated, the intention that it should be obligatory upon
the Assembly to appoint to the Committeea predominating number
of the largest ship-owning nations remained constant; instead,
however, of being at least the nine largest, it was to be at least the
eight largest.

The determination to retain the predominance of the largest
ship-owning nations finds expression in Article 28 (a), the terms of
which exclude the possibility of an interpretation which would
authorize the Assembly to refuse membership on the Committee
18 to any one or more of the eight largest ship-owning nations.

It has been suggested that the word "elected" where it first
appears in Article 28 (a) was deliberately chosen in order to confer
on the Assembly a wide authority to appraise the relative qualifi-
cations of Member States for election to the Committee. The fact
is, however, that this word found its way into the Article at some
time between I March 1948, when the Article was adopted "subject
..to drafting changes", and four days after, namely, on 5 March
1948. It replaced the word "selected" which had appeared in every
draft of the Articlesince 1946.
There was apparently no explanation for, or any discussion on,
the alteration. It was a mere drafting change. If the word "elected"
had the special significance sought to be attached to it, it seems
unlikely that the word would have found its way into the Article
in this manner.
What Article 28 (a) requires the Assembly to do is to determine
which of its Members are the eight "largest ship-owning nations"
within the meaning which these words bear. That is the sole content
of its function in relation to them. The words of the Article "of
which not less than eight shall be the largest ship-owning nations"
have a mandatory and imperative sense and precisely carry out
the intention of the framers of the Convention.

The Court must now consider the meaning of the words "the
largest ship-owning nations".
In the opinion of the Netherlands Government, set out in its

Written Statement, "the term 'ship-owning nations' is ...not suit-
able for legal analysis; it cannot be decomposed into elements
which have any specific legal connotation ..:even the fact that the
merchant fleet, flying the flag of a particular State, is owned by
nationals of that State cannot in itself qualify that State as a ship-
owning nation". Registration and the right to fly the flag and
national ownership of merchant vessels "may, together with other
factors", it contended, "be relevant for the determination by the
Assembly whether or not a State can be considered as a 'ship-
owning nation' ", but "they do not either separately or jointly
impress upon a State the quality required ...".

The view of the Government of the United Kingdom, which
appears to express the common view of that Government and that
of the Netherlands, is set out in the Written Statement of the
United Kingdom as follows:

19166 MARITIME SAFETY COM3IITTEE (OPIXION OF 8 VI 60)
"The expression 'the largest ship-owningnations' has no apparent
clear-cut or technical meaning...It is submitted that the intention
of those words was to enable the Assembly in the process of election
to look at the realities of the situation and to determine according
to its own judgment, whether or not candidates for election to the
Maritime Safety Committee could properly be regarded as the
'largest ship-owningnations' in a real and substantial sens..these
words, while intended to guide the Assembly, were at the same time
deliberately framed so as to enable the Assembly to deal with the
matter on the basis of the true situation and the real interest in
haritirne safety of the State concerned."

This submission asserts an authority in the Assembly to appraise
which nations are ship-owning nations and which are the largest
among them, the words "the largest ship-owningnations" providing
but a guide. The Assembly would be free "to look at the realities"
on the basis of "the true situation", whatever in its opinion and
that of its individual members these might be considered to be. It
would be bound by no ascertainable criteria. Its rnembers in casting
their votes would be entitled to have regard to any considerations
they might think relevant.

If Article 28(a) were intended to confer upon the Assembly such
an authority, enabling it to choose the eight largest ship-owning
nations, uncontrolled by any objective test of any kind, whetiler
it bc that of tonnage registration or ownership by nationals or
any other, the mandatory words "not less than eight shall be the
largest ship-owning nations" would be left without significance.
To givc to the Article such a construction would mean that the
structure built into the Article to ensure the predominance on
the Committee of "the" largest ship-owning nations in the ratio
of at least eight to six would be undermined and would collapse.
The Court is unable to accept an interpretation which would have
such a result.

III order to determine which nations are the largest ship-owning
nations, it is apparent that some basis of measurement must be
applied. The rationale of the situation is that when Article 28 (a)
speaks of "the largest ship-owning nations", it can only have in
mind a comparative size vis-à-vis other nations owners of tonnage.
There is no other practical means by which the size of ship-owning
nations may be measured. The largest ship-owning nations are to
be elected on the strength of their tonnage, the tonnage which is
owned by or belongs to them. The only question is in what sense
Article 28(a) contemplates it should be owned by or belong to them. MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)
167
A general opinion, shared by the Court, is that it is not possible
to contend that the words "ship-owning nations" in Article 28 (a)
mean that the ships have to be owned by the State itself.

There appear to be but two meanings which could demand
serious consideration: either the words refer to the tonnage bene-
ficially owned by the nationals of a State orthey refer to the regis-
tered tonnage of a flag State regardless of its private or State
ownership.
Liberia and Panama, supported by other States, have contended
that the sole test is registered tonnage. On the other hand, it has
been submitted by certain States that the proper interpretation
of the Article requires that ships should belong to nationals of the

State whose flag they fly. This submission was rather concretely
expressed by the Government of Norway which suggested using
the flag-tonnage as a point of departure, reducing this amount
by the amount of tonnage not owned by nationals of the flag State
and adding the tonnage which does belong to such nationals but is
registered under a different flag.

An examination of certain Articles of the Convention and the
actual practice which was followed in giving effect to them throws
some light on the Court's consideration of the question.
Article 60 providing for entry into force of the Convention, and
which follows the form to be found in a number of multilateral
treaties dealing with safety and working conditions at sea, States:

"The present Convention shall enter into force on the date when
21 States of which seven shall each have a total tonnage of not less
than ~,ooo,ooogross tons of shipping, have become parties to the
Convention in accordance with Article 57."
The required conditions having been fulfilled on 17 March 1958,

the Convention came into force on that day. As is stated by 1,egal
Counsel of the Vnited Kations in a letter of IO April 1959:
"In so far as concerns the requirement of Article 60 that seven
among the States becoming parties should 'each have a total
tonnage' of the stated amount, no question was raised, and no
consideration was given, as to whether the total tonnage figure
of any State then a party, as indicated by Lloyd's Register, should
be altered for any reason bearing upon the ownership of siich
tonnage."

Article 60 has a special significancé. In the English text this
Article speaks of certain Statcs which ''ha~.c" a total tonnage,
whilst in -Article 28(a) the refvrencc is to nations "owning" ships.

21In the French and Spanish texts however, which texts are equally
authentic, the same verb "to own" or "to possess" is used in each

Article. There can be, and indeed there is, no dispute that whether
the reference in Article 60 is to States which "have" the specified
tonnage-as in the English text-or whether it is to States which
"own" or "possess" that specified tonnage-as in the French and
Spanish texts-that reference is to registered tonnage and regis-
tered tonnage only and provides an automatic criterion to deter-
mine the point of time at which the Convention comes into force.

The practice followed by the Assembly in relation to other
Articles reveals the reliance placed upon registered tonnage.
Thus in implementing Article 17 (c) of the Convention, which
provides that two members of the Council "shall be elected by the
Assembly from among the goverhments of nations having a sub-

stantial interest in providing international shipping servicesJ',
the Assembly elected Japan and Italy. This was done after it had
been reported to the Assembly that the representatives of the
Members of the Council who were required under the terms of
Article 18 to make their recommendation to the Assembly had

"therefore examined the claims of countries having a substantial
interest in providing international shipping services. They did not
feel that they should propose to the Assembly a long list of can-
their tonnage; they recommended the electionthofJapan (with ton-f
nage of about 5,500,ooo tons) and of Italy (with a tonnage of
nearly~,OOO,OOO)."

The tonnages mentioned are those recorded in the list of the Sec-
retary-General of the Organization, which was before the Assembly
in the election under Article 28 (a) and which is none other than
a copy of Lloyd's Register of Shipping for 1958. The registered ton-
nages of the two countries were taken as the appropriate criterion,
there was no suggestion of any other. There were only two Members
to be elected under Article 17 (c)and there were only two recom-
mendations to the Assembly.
The apportionment of the expenses of the Organization amongst
its Members under the provisions of Article 41 of the Convention is
also significant. Under Resolution A.zo(1) adopted bythe Assembly
of the Organization on 19 January 1959, the assessment on each
Member State was principally "determined by its respective gross

registered tonnage as shown in the latest edition of Lloyd's Register
of Shifiping". Those States whose registered tonnages were the
largest paid the largest assessments.

Furthermore, the Assembly, when proceeding to elect the eight
largest ship-owning nations under Article 28 (a), took note of the
Working Paper prepared by the Secretary-General of the Organi-
22 11.4RITI?rIE SAFETY CO?rI?rIITT(OPIXION OF 8 VI 60)
169
zation which embodies a list of the ship-owning nations with their
respective registered tonnages formulated on the basis of Lloyd's
Register. Liberia and Panama, countries which were among the
eight largest on the list, were not elected by the Assembly but
countries which ranked ninth and tenth were elected.

This reliance upon registered tonnage in giving effect to different
provisions of the Convention and the comparison which has been
made of the texts of Articles 60 and 28 (a), persuade the Court to
the view that it is unlikely that when the latter -4rticle was drafted
and incorporated into the Convention it was contemplated that
any criterion other than registered tonnage should determine
which were the largest ship-owning nations. In particular it is
unlikely that it was contemplated that the test should be the
nationality of stock-holders and of others having beneficial inter-
ests in every merchant ship; facts which would be difficult to
catalogue, to ascertain and to measure. To take into account
the names and nationalities of the owners or shareholders of ship-
ping companies would, to adopt the words of the representative

of the Cnited Kingdom during the debate which preceded the
election, "introduce an unnecessarily complicated criterion".
Such a method of evaluating the ship-owning rank of a country is
ncither practical nor certain. Moreover, it finds no basis in inter-
national practice, the language of international jurisprudence, in
m~ritimc terminology, in international conventions dealing with
safzty at sea or in the practice followed by the Organization itself
in carrying out the Convention. On the other hand, the criterion
of registered tonnagc is practical, certain ancl capable of easy
application.

Moreover, the test of registered tonnage is that which is most
consonant with international practice and with maritime usage.
Article 28 (a) was drawn up by maritime experts who might
reasonably be expected to have been acquainted with previous and
existing conventions concerned with shipping and dealing with
safety at sea and allied subjects. In such conventions a ship has
commonly been considered as belonging to a State if it is registered
by that State.
The Load Line Convention of 1930 affords a suitable example.
Article 3 thereof provides :

"(a) a ship is regarded as belonging to a country ifit is registered
by the Government of that country;
(b) the expression 'Administration' means the Government of the
the country to which the ship helongs...". A similar provision was to be found in Article2of the Convention
for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1929.
Among other international conventions which acknowledge the
same principles are the Brussels Conventions of 1910 respecting
Collisions, and Assistance and Salvage at Sea;the Conventions for
the Safety of Life at Sea of 1914 and 1948, and the Convention for
Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 1954. Numerous bi-
lateral treaties also give expression to it.

The Court is unable to accept the view that when the Article was
first drafted in 1946 and referred to "ship-owning nations" in the
same context in which it referred to "nations owning substantial
amounts of merchant shipping", the draftsmen were not speaking
of merchant shipping belonging to a country in the sense used in
international conventions concerned with safety at sea and cognate
matters from 1910 onwards. It would, in its view, be quite unlikely,

if the words "ship-owning nations" were intended to have any
different meaning, that no attempt would have been made to
indicate this. The absence of any discussion on their meaning as
the draft Article developed strongly suggests that there was no
doubt as to their meaning; that they referred to registered ship
tonnage. It is, indeed, not without significance that about the time
the draft Article was finally settled,loyd's Register for1948 listed
as belonging to the various countnes of the world the vessels
registered inthose countries and that under the heading "Countries
where owned" there were given the number and gross tonnage of
vessels which are the same as those registered under the flag of
each nation indicated.

The conclusion the Court reaches is that where in Article 28 (a)
"ship-owning nations" are referred to, the reference is solely to

registered tonnage. The largest ship-owning nations are the nations
having the largest registered ship tonnage.
The interpretation the Court gives to Article 28 (a) is consistent
with the general purpose of the Convention and the special func-
tions of the Maritime Safety Committee. The Organization estab-
lished by the Convention is a consultative one only, and the
Maritime Safety Committee is the body which has the duty to
consider matters within the scope of the Organization and of
recommending through the Council and the Assembly to Member
States, proposals for maritime regulation. In order effectively
to carry out these recommendations and to promote maritime
safety in its numerous and vaned aspects, the CO-operationofthose
States who exercise jurisdiction over a large portion of the world's

24existing tonnage is essential. The Court cannot subscribe to an
interpretation of "largest ship-owning nations" in Article 28 (a)
which is out of harmony with the purposes of the Convention and
which would empower the Assembly to refuse Membership of the
Maritime Safety Committee to a State, regardless of the fact that
it ranks among the first eight in terms of registered tonnage.

It was contended in the course of the arguments that the Assem-
bly, in assessing the size, in relation to ship-owning, of each country,
was entitled to take into consideration the notion of a genuine
link which it was claimed should exist between ships and the coun-
tries in which they are registered. Articl5 of the unratified Geneva
Convention on the High Seas of 1958 was invoked in support of
this contention. That Article itself provides:

"Each State shallfixthe conditions forthe granof its nationality
to ships, for the registration of ships in its territory, and for the
right to flyits flag."

The Court having reached the conclusion that the determination
of the largest ship-owning nations depends solely upon the tonnage
registered in the countries in question, any further examination of
the'contention based on a genuine link is irrelevant for the purpose
of answering the question which has been submitted to the Court
for an advisory opinion.
The Assembly elected to the Committee neither Liberia nor
Panama, in spite of the fact that, on the basis of registered tonnage,
these two States were included among the eight largest ship-

owning nations. By so doing the Assembly failed to comply with
Article 28 (a) of the Convention which, as the Court has established,
must be interpreted as requiring the determination of the largest
ship-owning nations to be made solely on the basis of registered
tonnage.

For these reasons,

by nine votes to five,

that the Maritime Safety Committee of the Inter-Governmental
Maritime Consultative Organization, which was elected on 15 Janu-
ary 1959, is not constituted in accordance with the Convention for
the Establishment of the Organization.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authori-
tative, at the Peace Palace, The Hague, thiseighthday ofJune, one
thousand nine hundred and sixty, in two copies, one of which will
25172 M=IRITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)

be placed in the archives of the Court and the other transmitted
to the Secretary-General of the Inter-Governmental Maritime
Consultative Organization.

(Signed) Helge KLAESTAD,
President.

(Signed) G.~RSIER-COIGNET,
Deputy-Registrar.

President KLAESTAD and Judge MORENO QUIWTANA append to
the Opinion statements of their dissenting opinion.

(Initialled) H. K.

(Initialled) G.-C.

Bilingual Content

INTERNATIONAL COURTOF JUSTICE

REPORTS OF JUDGMENTS,
ADVISORY OPINIONS AND ORDERS

CONSTITUTION OF THE
MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE OF THE

INTER-GOVERNMENTAL MARITIME
CONSULTATIVE ORGANIZATION

ADVISORY OPINION OF 8 JUNE 1960

COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

RECUEIL DES ARRÊTS,
AVIS CONSULTATIFS ET ORDONNANCES

COMPOSITION DU COMITÉ DE LA
SÉCURITÉ MARITIME DE L'ORGANISATION

INTERGOUVERNEMEPJTALE CONSULTATIVE
DE LA NAVIGATION MARITIME

AVIS CONSULTATIFDU 8JUIN 1960 This Opinion should be cited as follows:

"Constitution of the Maritime Safety Cornmitteeof the Inter-Govern-
mental Maritime Consultative Organization,
Advisoïy Opinion of 8 June 1960: I.C.J. Reeorts 1960, p. 150."

Le présent avis doit ktre citécomme suit:

((Composition du Comitéde la Sécuritémaritime de l'Organisation
intergouvernementale consultativede la Navigation maritime,

Avis consultatif du 8 juin 1960: C. I. J. Recueil 1960, p. 150. ))

Sales number
No de vente : INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE

1960
8 June YEAR 1960
GeneraList:
No. 43 8 June 1960

CONSTITUTION OF THE
MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE OF THE

INTER-GOVERNMENTAL MARITIME

CONSULTATIVE ORGANIZATION

Interpretation of Convention for Establishment of Inter-Govern-
mental Maritime Consultative0rganization.-Confor election

to Maritime Safety Cornmittee.-"Largest ship-owning nations9'.-
"Importantinterest in maritime sajetyu.-Compliance with latter
qualificationimplied in caseoflargestship-owzingnations.-Meaning
of "elected"in Articlea) of Convention.-Words connotingobjec-
tive testcluding discretionarychoice.-Registered gross tonnage as
criterion.

ADVISORY OPINION

Present:PresidentKLAESTA D Vice-PresidenZAFRULLA KHAN ;

Judges BASDEVANT ,ACKWORTH W,INIARSKI,BADAWI,
ARMAND-UGON,KO JEVNIKOV, MORENO QUINTANA,
CORDOVAW , ELLINGTON KOO, SPIROPOULOS ,ir Percy
SPENDER,ALFARO; Deputy-RegistraGARNIER-COIGNET. COUR INTERNATIONALE DE JUSTICE

1960
Le 8 juin
ANNEE 1960 Rôle général
no43
8 juin 1960

COMPOSITION DU COMITÉ DE LA
SÉCURITÉ MARITIME DE L'ORGANISATION

INTERGOUVERNEMENTALE CONSULTATIVE

DE LA NAVIGATION MARITIME

Interprétation de la Convention portant création del'Organisation
intergouvernementale consultative dela Navigation maritime.
Conditions d'électionau Comitéde la Sécuritémari-i((Pays ...

qui possèdent les flottes decommerceles plus impo». -t((In-
térêitmportant dans les questions de sécuritémaritimealisa-
tion de cette dernière condition implicite dans le cas des pays qui
possèdentles flottes de commerceles plus importantes.fication

du mot (élusadans l'artic28a) de la Conventio-.Termes indi-
quant un critèreobjectif excluant un pouvoir dechoix discrétionnaire.
- Critèredu tonnage de jauge brute immatriculé.

AVIS CONSULTATIF

Présents :M. KLAESTAD ,résident ;M. ZAFRULLA KHAN, Vice-

Président;MM. BASDEVANT H,ACKWORTH W,INIARSKI,
BADAWI, ARMAND-UGON,KOJEVNIKOV, MORENO
QUINTANA, CORDOVA W, ELLINGTOK NOO,SPIROPOULOS,

Sir Percy SPENDER,M. ALFARO ,uges; M. GARNIER-
COIGNET , re@er adjoint.

4 In the matter of the Constitution of the Maritime Safety Com-
mittee of the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organi-
zation,

composed as above,

gives the following Advisory Opinion :
By a letter dated 23 March 1959, filed in the Registry on 25
March, the Secretary-General of the Inter-Governmental Maritime
Consultative Organization informed the Court that, by a Resolution
adopted on 19 January 1959, a certified true copy of which was
transmitted with the Secretary-General's letter, the Assembly of
the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization had
decided to request the Court to give an Advisory Opinion on the

question set out in the Resolution, which was in the following
terms :
"The Assembly

Consideringthat differencesof opinion have arisen asto the inter-
of the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization;ment

Consideringthat the Convention provides in Article 56 that
questions of law may be referred to the International Court of
Justice for an advisory opinion;
Resolves

To submit to the International Court of Justice, in accordance
with Article 65,paragraph 2,of its Statute, a request for an advisory
opinion on the following question of law:
1s the Maritime Safety Committee of the Inter-Governmental
Maritime Consultative Organization, which was elected on
15 January 1959c ,onstituted in accordance with the Convention
for the Establishment of the Organization?
Instr~cts the Secretary-General to place at the disposal of the
Court the relevant records of the Firs.tAssemblyof the Organization
and its Committees; and in accordance with Article IX of the
Agreement between the United Nations and the Inter-Govern-
mental Maritime Consultative Organization to inform the Economic
and SocialCouncilof the United Nations of the present resolution."

In accordance with Article 66, paragraph 1,of the Statute of the

Court, notice of the request for an Advisory Opinion was on 9April
1959 given to all States entitled to appear before the Court.
The Secretary-General of the Inter-Governmental Maritime
Consultative Organization having on 14 July 1959 transmitted to En l'affaire relative à la composition du Comité de la Sécurité
maritime de l'organisation intergouvernementale consultative de
la Navigation maritime,

LA COUR,
ainsi composée,

donne l'avis consultatif suivan:

Par lettre du 23 mars 1959, enregistrée au Greffe le 25 mars, le
Secrétaire général de l'organisation intergouvernementale consul-
tative de la Navigation maritime a porté à la connaissance de la
Cour que, par une résolution adoptée le 19 janvier 1959, dont une
copie certifiéeconforme était jointeà lalettre du Secrétaire général,
l'Assembléede l'Organisation intergouvernementale consultative de
la Navigation maritime avait décidéde demander à la Cour inter-
nationale de Justice un avis consultatif sur la question énoncée
dans la résolution et qui est conçue dans les termes suivants:

(L'Assemblée
Considérant que l'interprétation du paragraphe a) de l'article
28 de la Convention portant créationde l'organisation intergouver-
nementale consultative de la Navigation maritime a donnélieu à
des divergences d'opinion;
Considérantque la Convention, en son article 56,dispose que les
questionsde droit peuvent êtreportéesdevant laCourinternationale
de Justice pour avis consultatif;

DLcide
De soumettre àla Courinternationale de Justice, conformémenà
l'article 65, paragraph2,de son Statut, une requête demandantun
avis consultatif sur le point de droit ci-après:

Le Comitéde la Sécurité maritime de l'organisation inter-
gouvernementale consultative de la Navigation maritime, élu
le 15janvier 1959,a-t-il été étaionformément à la Convention
portant créationde l'Organisation?
Charge le Secrétaire généralde mettre à la disposition de la
Courles comptes rendus et documents pertinents de la premièreAs-
semblée del'organisation et de ses Commissionset d'informer le
Conseiléconomiqueet social de l'organisation des Nations Unies de
la présente résolution,conformément à l'article IX de l'Accord
régissant les relations entre l'organisation des Nations Unies et
l'organisation intergouvernementaleconsultative de la Navigation
maritime.))
Conformément à l'article 66, paragraphe 1, du Statut de la Cour,
la requête pour avis consultatif a éténotifiée leg avril1959 à tous

les Etats admis à ester en justice devant la Cour.
Le Secrétaire général de l'organisation intergouvernementale
consultative de la Navigation maritime ayant, le 14 juillet1959,
5152 MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)

the Court the documents likely to throw light upon the question,
and the President considering that the States Members of the
Organization as well as the Organization itself were likely to be
able to furnish information on the question, those States and the
Organization were on 5 August 1959 informed in accordance with
Article 66, paragraph 2, of the Statute that the Court would be
prepared to receive written statements from them within a time-
limit, fixed by an Order of the same date, at j December 1959.
Written statements were received on behalf of the Governments of
Belgium, France, Liberia, the United States of America, the Re-
public of China, Panama, Switzerland, Italy, Denmark, the Vnited
Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, Norway, the
Netherlands, and India.

These written statements were communicated to the Inter-
Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization and to the
States Members of the Organization. Public hearings were held on
26, 27, 28 and 29 April, and on 2, 3 and 4 May 1960, when the
Court was addressed by the following:

The Honourable Rocheforte L. Weeks, formerAssistant Attorney-
General, President of the University of Liberia, and
The Honourable Edward R. Moore, Assistant Attorney-General,
representing the Government of Liberia;
Dr. Octavio Fabrega, President of the National Council of
Foreign Affairs, in the capacity of Ambassador Extraordinary and
Plenipotentiary on Special Mission, representing the Government

of Panama ;
The Honourable Eric H. Hager, Legal Adviser of the Department
of State, representing the Government of the United States of
America ;
M. Riccardo Monaco, Professor of the University of Rome, Chief
of the Department of Contentious Matters of the Ministry for
Foreign Affairs, representing the Government of Italy;
Mr. W. Riphagen, Professor of International Law at Rotterdam,
Legal Adviser of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, representing the
Government of the Netherlands;

Mr. Finn Seyersted, Director of Legal Affairs in the Norwegian
Ministry for Foreign Affairs, representing the Government of
Norway ;
Mr. F. A. Vallat, Deputy Legal Adviser to the Foreign Office,
representing the Government of the United Kingdom of Great
Britain and Northern Ireland.

The question submitted to the Court in the Request for an
Advisory Opinion, cast though it is in a general form, is directed
6transmis à la Cour les documents pouvant sejvir à élucider la
question et le Président ayant jugé que les Etats membres de
l'organisation, ainsi que l'organisation elle-même,étaient,suscep-
tibles de fournir des renseignements sur la question, ces Etats et
l'organisation ont étéinformés le 5 août 1959, conformément à

l'article 66, paragraphe 2, du Statut, que la Cour était disposéeà
recevoir d'eux des exposésécritsdans un délaidont,par ordonnance
du même jour,la date d'expiration a étéfixéeau 5 décembre 1959.
Les Gouvernements de la Belgique, de la France, du Libéria, des
Etats-Unis d'Amérique, de la République de Chine, du Panama,
de la Suisse, de l'Italie, du Danemark, du Royaume-Uni de Grande-
Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord, de la Norvège, des Pays-Bas et de
l'Inde ont fait usage de cette faculté.
Ces exposés écrits ont étécommuniqués à l'organisation inter-
gouvernementale consultative de la Navigation maritime et aux
Etats membres de l'organisation. Au cours des audiences publiques
tenues les 26, 27, 28 et 29 avril et les 2, et 4mai 1960, la Cour a
entendu des exposés oraux. Ont pris la parole:

l'Honorable Rocheforte L. Weeks, ancien Attorney-General
adjoint, président de 1'Universite du Libéria, et

l'Honorable Edward R. Moore,Attorney-General adjoint, représen-
tant le Gouvernement du Libéria;
le Dr Octavio Fhbrega, président du Conseil national des rela-
tions extérieures, en qualité d'ambassadeur extraordinaire et pléni-
potentiaire en mission spéciale, représentant le Gouvernement du
Panama ;
1,'HonorableEric H. Hager, conseiller jurjdique du Département
d'Etat, représentant le Gouvernement des Etats-Unis d'Amérique;

M. Riccardo Monaco, professeur à l'Université de Rome, chef du
contentieux diplomatique du ministère des Affaires étrangères,
représentant le Gouvernement de l'Italie;
M. W. Riphagen, professeur de droit international à Rotterdam,
jurisconsulte du ministère des Affaires étrangères, représentant le
Gouvernement des Pays-Bas ;
M. Finn Seyersted, directeur des affaires juridiques au ministère
des Affaires étrangèresde Norvège, représentant le Gouvernement
de la Norvège ;

M. F. A. Vallat, conseiller juridique adjoint au ministère des
Affaires étrangères,représentant le Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni
de Grande-Bretagne et d'Irlande du Nord.

Bien qu'énoncéeen termes généraux,la question poséeà la Cour
dans la demande d'avis vise un cas particulier et peut se formuler

6153 MARITIME SAFETY COMM-ITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)

to a particular case, and may beformulated in the followingmanner :
has the Assembly, in not electing Liberia and Panama to the
Maritime Safety Committee, exercised its electoral power in a
manner in accordance with the provisions of Article 28 (a) of the
Convention of 6 March 1948 for the Establishment of the Inter-
Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization?
The Statements submitted to the Court have shown that linked
with the question put to it there are others of a political nature.
The Court as a judicial body is however bound, in the exercise of
its advisory function, to remain faithful to the requirements of its
judicial character.

The Convention referred to in the Request for an Advisory

Opinion establishes a body known as the Inter-Governmental
Maritime Consultative Organization (hereinafter called "the Or-
ganization"). Its purposes areset out in ArticleIof the Convention,
the most important of which is concerned with maritime safety and
efficiencyof navigation.
The Organization consists of an Assembly, a Council, a.Maritime
Safety Committee and such subsidiary organs as the Organization
may at any time consider necessary, and a Secretariat.

The Assembly consists of ail the Members of the Organization
meeting in regular sessiononce every two years. Among its functions
is "to elect ...the Maritime Safety Committee as provided in
Article 28" (Art.16 (d)).
The Council consists of sixteen Members. Its principal functions
are to receive the recommendations of the Maritime Safety Com-
mittee, and to transmit them to the Assembly or to the Members
when the Assembly is not in session, together with its own corn-
ments and recommendations. Matters within the scope O£ the duties
of the Maritime Safety Committee may be considered by the Council

only after obtaining the views of that Committee thereon (Art. 22).
The Maritime Safety Committee's principal duties are set out in
Article 29.They include the consideration of any matter within the
scope of the Organization and concerned with aids to navigation,
construction and equipment of vessels, manning from a safety
standpoint, rules for prevention of collisions, handling of dangerous
cargoes, maritime safety procedures and requirements and any
other matters directly affecting marïtime safety. It is called upon
to maintain close relationship with such other inter-governmental
bodies concerned with transport and communications as may
further the object of the Organization in promoting maritime
safety. COMITÉ DE LA SÉCURITÉ MARITIME (AVIS DU 8 VI 60)
153
ainsi: en n'élisant pas le Libéria et le Panama au Comité de la
Sécurité maritime,-l'Assembléea-t-elle exercé sonpouvoir électoral
d'une manière conforme aux termes de l'article 28 a) de la Conven-
tion du 6 mars 1948 portant création de l'organisation inter-

gouvernementale consultative de la Navigation maritime ?

Lesexposésprésentés à la Cour ont fait apparaîtrequ'àla question
qui lui a étésoumise s'en rattachent d'autres qui ont un caractère
politique. Cependant, en tant que corps judiciaire, la Cour doit
dans l'exercice de sa fonction consultative rester fidèle aux
exigences de son caractère judiciaire.

La Convention à laquelle se réfère la demande d'avis a établi une
institution connue sous le nom d'organisation intergouvernementale
consultative de la Navigation maritime (ci-après dénommée:
l'organisation). Ses buts sont exposés àl'articleI de la Convention;

le plus important d'entre eux a trait aux questions de sécurité
maritime et d'efficacitéde la navigation.
L'Organisation comprend une Assemblée,un Conseil, un Comité
de la Sécuritémaritime et tels organesauxiliaires que l'organisation
estimerait à tout moment nécessaire de créer, ainsi qu'un Secré-
tariat.
L'Assembléese compose de tous les Membres de l'organisation
et se réunit en session ordinaire une fois par période de deux ans.
L'une de ses fonctions est d'«élire ...[le] Comité de la Sécurité
maritime conformément à l'article 28 ))(art.16 d)).
Le Conseil comprend seize membres. Sa fonction principale est
de recevoir les recommandations du Comité dela Sécurité maritime

et de les transmettre à l'Assembléeou, si IJAssembléene siègepas,
aux Membres, en les accompagnant de ses observations et de ses
recommandations. Les questions du ressort du Comitédela Sécurité
maritime ne peuvent êtreexaminées par le Conseil qu'après étude
par ce Comité(art. 22).
Les principales fonctions du Comitéde la Sécurité maritime sont
é~iuméréeàs l'article 29. Elles s'étendent à l'examen de toutes les
questions qui relèvent de la compétence de l'organisation, telles
que les aides à la navigation maritime, la construction et l'équipe-
ment des navires, les questions d'équipage dans la mesure où elles
intéressent la sécurité, les règlements destinés à prévenir les

abordages, la manipulation des cargaisonsdangereuses,la réglemen-
tation dela sécuritéenmer et toutesautres questions ayantunrapport
direct avec la sécurité maritime. Le Comitéest appelé à maintenir
des rapports étroits avec les autres organismes intergouvernemen-
taux qui s'occupent de transports et decommunications,susceptibles
d'aider l'organisation à atteindre son but en augmentant la sécurité
en mer.154 MARITI31E SAFETY COMMITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)

The composition of the Committee and the mode of designating
its Members are governed by Article 28 (a) which reads as follows:

"The Maritime Safety Committee shall consist of fourteen
Members elected by the Assembly from the Members,governments
of those nations having an important interest in maritime safety,
of which not lesshan eight shall be the largest ship-owning nations,
andthe remainder shall be elected so asto ensure adequate represen-
tation of Members, govemments of other nations with an important
interest in maritime safety, such as nations interested in the supply
berthed and unberthed passengers, and of major geographical areas."

The Court is called upon to appreciate whether, in not electing
Liberia and Panama to the Maritime Safety Committee, the Assem-
bly complied with that provision. For this purpose, the Court must,
in the first place, recallthe circumstances in which the Assembly
proceeded to the election of the Committee and asked for an
advisory opinion.
The Assembly began its consideration of the election of members
of the Maritime Safety Committee on 14 January 1959. It had
before it a working paper prepared by the Secretary-General of
the Organization, headed as follows:

"Election of Members of the Maritime Safety Committee, as
provided in Article28 of the Convention.
Merchant fleet of the IMCO Members according to the Lloyd's
Register of Shipping Statistical tables 1958."

Thereunder were set out, in descending order of total gross reg-
istered tonnage, the names of Members with the figures of their
registered tonnage.On this listLiberia was third and Panama eighth.
The Assembly also had before it a draft United Kingdom re-
solution which was in the following terms:

"The Assembly,

Desiring to elect the eight Members of the Maritime Safety
Committee which shall be the largest ship-owning nations,

Having taken note of the list prepared by the Secretary-General
(doc. IMCO/A. 11Working Paper 5) showing the registered tonnage
of each Member of the Organization
8 La composition de ce Comité et le mode de désignation de ses

membres sont régléspar l'article 28 a) de la Convention, lequel
dispose :
((Le Comité de la Sécuritémaritime se compose de quatorze
Membres éluspar l'Assembléeparmi les Membres, gouvernements
des pays qui ont un intérêt important dans les questions de sécurité
maritime. Huit au moins de cespays doivent êtreceux qui possèdent
les flottes de commerce les plus importantes; l'élection desautres
doit assurer une représentation adéquate d'une part aux Membres,
gouvernements des autres pays qui ont un intérêtimportant dans
les questions de sécurité maritime,tels que les pays dont les ressor-

tissants entrent, en grand nombre, dansla compositiondeséquipages
ou qui sont intéressésau transport d'un grand nombre de passagers
de cabine et de pont et, d'autre part, aux principales régionsgéo-
graphiques. 1)

La Cour est appelée à apprécier si, en n'élisant pas le Libéria et
le Panama au Comité de la Sécurité maritime, l'Assemblée s'est
conformée à cette disposition. A cet effet, la Cour doit en premier
lieu rappeler dans quelles conditions l'Assemblée a procédé à

l'élection du Comité et a demandé un avis consultatif.

L'Assemblée a abordé la question de l'élection des membres du
Comité de la Sécuritémaritime le 14janvier 1959. Elle avait devant
elle un document de travail établi par le Secrétaire général de
l'organisation et portant le titre suivant:

((Élection des Membres au Comité de la Sécuritémaritime,
conformément aux dispositions de l'article 28 de la Convention.
Importance de la flotte de commerce des Membres de 1'IMCO
d'après le aLloyd's Register of Shipping Statistical tables 1958 ))
(Tableaux statistiques de la marine marchande en 1958publiéspar
la Lloyd).n
Ce tableau indiquait, par ordre décroissant de tonnage de jauge

brute global, les noms des pays Membres suivis du chiffre de leur
tonnage immatriculé. Sur ce tableau, le Libéria occupait le troisième
rang et le Panama le huitième.
L'Assemblée avait également devant elle un projet de résolution
présenté par le Royaume-LTni, dont le texte était le suivant:

((L'Assemblée,
DLsirezbse d'élire les huit membres du Comitéde la Sécurité
maritime qui doivent êtreles pays possédantlesflottes de commerce
lesplus importantes,

Ayalzt fivis ,lote de la liste itablie par le Secrétaire général
(IMCO/A.I/dociiment de travail 5), qui indique le tonnage de jauge
de chacun des membres de l'organisation,
8 Resolves
that a separate vote shall be taken for eachof the eight places
on the Committee ;
that the voting shall be in the order in which the nations
appear in the Secretary-General'slist, and

that those eight nations which first receive a majority of votes
in favour shall be declared elected."

The representative of the Government of Liberia submitted both
a separate draft Resolution and an amendment to that of the
United Kingdom, to the effect that for the purposes of Article
28 (a) the eight largest ship-owning nations should be determined
by reference to the figures for gross registered tonnage as they
appeared in Lloyd's Register of Shipping current at the date of the
election. He submitted that Article 28 (a) laid down the rules to be
followed for electing members of the Committee and that these
rules ha-dto be strictly observed. Under Article 28(a) the Assembly
had to elect the eight largest ship-owning nations. That, he sub-
mitted, was not an election in the usual sense of the word, for
once those eight nations had been determined, the Assembly was

bound to elect them. The representative of Panama supported
these submissions.
There was no challenge that the figures in the Secretary-General's
Working Paper, which were identical with the figures shown in the
latest issue of Lloyd'sRegisterofShipeing and which setout country
by country the gross registered tonnage of each nation, were in
any way incorrect.
The Government of the United States submitted a proposa1 to
defer the election of the Committee until the Assembly's second
regular session and in the meantime to establish a provisional
Committee open to al1 the Members of the Assembly.
The Liberian Government's amendment to the United King-
dom's draft resolution was replaced by a joint amendment of that
Government and the United States of America which was essen-
tially in the same terms. Neither the proposa1 of the United States
nor the joint amendment was adopted by the Assembly.
At the meeting of 15 January 1959, the Assembly adopted the
United Kingdom draft resolution, thus expressing, according to

the terms of the Resolution, its desire "to elect the eight Members
of the Maritime Safety Committee which shall be the largest ship-
owning nations". The President asked the Assembly to vote on the
eight countries to be elected under Article 28(a) country by country
in the order given in the Lloyd's Register of ShiPPing Statistical
Tables 1958. Liberia and Panama failed to be elected, the votes
being, respectively, eleven in favour and fourteen against, with
three abstentions, and nine in favour and fourteen against, with
five abstentions. Liberia and Panama abstained on the latter vote, Décide

que les huit sièges à pourvoir seront mis aux voix séparé-
ment,
que le vote se déroulera dans l'ordreoù les pays figurent sur la
liste établiepar le Secrétairegénérlt,
que les huit pays qui les premiers auront recueilli la majorité
des voix seront proclamés élus.)

Le représentant du Gouvernement du Libéria a soumis un projet
de résolution, ainsi qu'un amendement au projet de résolution du
Royaume-Uni, tendant l'un et l'autre à ce que, pour l'application
de l'article 28a), les huit pays possédant les flottes de commerce
les plus importantes fussent déterminés en fonction .des tonnages
de jauge brute indiqués dans la dernière livraison du Lloyd's
Register of Shipping parue à la date de l'élection. Il a soutenu que
l'article 28a)énonçait les règles à suivre pour élire les membres du
Comitéet que ces règles devaient êtrestrictement observées. Aux

termes de l'article 28 a),l'Assembléedevait élireles huit pays pos-
sédant les flottes de commerce les plus importantes. A son avis, il
ne s'agissait pas là d'une élection au sens usuel du terme car, une
fois ces huit pays identifiés,'Assembléeétait tenue de les élire. Le
représentant du Panama a appuyé cette thèse.
Nul n'a prétendu que les chiffres du document de travail établi
par le Secrétaire général, chiffresidentiques à ceux de la dernière
livraison du Lloyd's Register of Shipping et indiquant séparément
le tonnage de jauge brute de chaque pays, fussent en aucune
manière inexacts.
Le Gouvernement des États-unis a proposéde remettre l'élection
du Comité à la deuxième session ordinaire de l'Assemblée et

d'établir dans l'intervalle un Comité provisoire ouvert à tous les
membres de l'Assemblée.
L'amendement du Gouvernement du Libéria au projet de
résolution du Royaume-Un? a étéremplacé par un amendement
conjoint du Libéria et des Etats-Unisrd'Amérique qui en reprenait
l'essentiel. Ni la proposition des Etats-Unis ni l'amendement
conjoint n'ont étéadoptés par l'Assemblée.
A sa séance du 15 janvier 1959, l'Assembléea adopté le projet
de résolution du Royaume-Uni, exprimant par là, selon les termes
de cette résolution, son désir (d'élire leshuit membres du Comité

de la Sécuritémaritime qui doivent être les pays possédant les
flottes de commerce les plus importantes N.Le Président a demandé
à l'Assemblée de voter séparément sur les huit pays à élire aux
termes de l'article 28 a) selon I'ordre des tableaux statistiques du
Lloyd's Register of ShiPPing pour 1958. Le Libéria et le Panama
n'ont pas étéélus, lenombre des voix obtenues par ces pays étant
pour le premier onze contre quatorze et trois abstentions, pour le
second neuf contre quatorze et cinq abstentions. Dans ce dernieron the ground that from the moment Liberia failed to be elected
they considered the election was nul1 and void.

At its next meeting, held the same day, the Assembly elected
the other six Members of the Committee.
After the election had taken place, the Assembly proceeded to
consider a draft resolution by Liberia tothe effect that the Assembly
should request an advisory opinion from this Court on the legal
issues which had arisen in connection with the interpretation of
Article 28 (a), and should ask a Committee to formulate the ques-
tions to be put to the Court and refer the matter back to the Assem-
bly for approval. The draft Liberian resolution was approved in
principle. On 19 January 1959 the Assembly adopted the Reso-
lution set out in the Request for an Opinion.

The debates which took place prior to the election revealed a
wide divergence of views on the relevant requirements of Article
28 (a).
The United Kingdom representative, speaking at the seventh
meeting of the Assembly, held on 14 January 1959, stated:

"The United Kingdom delegation felt it would be wrong for the
the special position of Liberia and Panama. There was clearly noly,
question of dealing with the problem of flags of convenience, which
lay outside the limits of discussion. What the Assembly had to do
was to choose eight countries which, on the one hand, had an impor-
tant interest in maritime safety and, on the other hand, were the
largest ship-owning nations, as these were the criteria laid down in
Article 28 of the Convention."
"...What the Assembly had to do was to consider how far govem-
ments were interested in maritime questions and to see to what
extent they were able to make a contribution in various fields
connected with safety ... It was obvious that in al1 those fields
neither Liberia nor Panama was, at the moment, in a position to
make any important contribution to maritime safety ..."
"As to the second criterion he had mentioned, namely, relative
importance as a ship-owning nation, he would emphasize that that
clear. Vesselshad really to belong to the countries in question, which
was obviously not the case with Panama and Liberia."
"Thus, neither from the point of view of interest in maritime
safety nor from that of tonnage could Liberia or Panama be included
amongst the eight maritime countries referred to in Article 28 (a)
of the Convention."

He added that according to the Convention those eight places
should be allotted to the largest ship-owning nations, but that did
not necessarily mean those countries whose fleets represented the scrutin, le Libéria et le Panama se sont abstenus, considérant que,
du moment que le Libéria n'avait pas étéélu, l'élection était nulle

et non avenue.
A sa séance suivante tenue le mêmejour, l'Assemblée a élu les
six autres membres du Comité.
Après l'élection, l'Assemblée a procédé à l'examen d'un projet
de résolution du Libéria invitant I'Assemblée à soumettre à la Cour
pour avis consultatif les points de droit soulevés par l'interprétation
de l'article28 a) et à charger une commission de formuler les ques-
tions à poser à la Cour et de les soumettre ensuite à l'Assemblée
pour approbation. Le projet de résolution du Libéria a étéaccepté
en principe. Le 19 janvier 1959, l'Assemblée a adopté la résolution

reproduite dans la requête pour avis.

Les débats qui ont précédé l'électionont révéléde considérables

divergences de vues quant aux prescriptions pertinentes de l'arti-
cle 28 a).
Le représentant du Royaume-Uni a déclaréau cours de la sep-
tième séance de l'Assemblée tenue le 14 janvier 1959:
«De l'avis de la délégationbritannique, l'Assembléeaurait tort
de ...[feindre] d'ignorer la difficulté essentielàesavoir la situation
particulière du Libéria et du Panama. Il n'est évidemment pas
question de s'attaquer au problème des pavillons de complaisance,
qui sort du cadre du présentdébat,mais il s'agit de choisir huit pays
qui, d'une part, aient un grand intérêt à la sécuritémaritime et,
d'autre part, possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus importantes,
puisque tels sont les critères fixéspar l'artic28 de la Convention. 11

« ...ce qu'il faut c'est considérerl'intérêtque portent les gouver-
nements aux questions maritimes et voir dans quelle mesure ils
peuvent apporter une contribution dans divers domaines qui
relèvent de la sécurité ..Il est évident que dans tous ces domaines
le Libéria et le Panama ne sont pas pour le moment en mesure
d'apporter une contribution importante à la sécuritémaritime ..1)
« Quant au second critère indiqué plus haut, l'importance des
flottes commerciales, [je] souligne que cette expression estmployke
ici pour la première fois; elle est parfaitement claire: il faut que
les navires appartiennent effectivement aux Etats en question, ce
qui n'est évidemment pas le cas du Panama et di1Libéria. ))
« Ainsi, ni du point de vue de l'intérêtpour la sécurité maritime
ni du point de vue du tonnage, le 1,ibériact lc Panama ne pciivent se
classer parmi les huit pays maritirncs viséspar l'alinéa (1)de l'arti-
cle28 de la Convention. 11

Il a ajouté que, d'après la C~nv~iltion, les huit sibgcs à pourvoir
devaient être attribués aux pays possédant les flottes de commerce
les plus importantes, mais qu'il ne s'agissait pas nécessairement des largest gross registered tonnage. The names and nationalities of
the owners or shareholders of the shipping companies should not
be taken into account in that connection, as that would introduce

an unnecessarily complicated criterion.

The representative of the Netherlands stated that the concept of
the largest ship-owning nations was not necessarily identical with
that of the nations having the largest registered tonnage; on the
contrary, a country's registered tonnage might in no way reflect
its actual importance as a ship-owning nation.

The argument was also put forward that the members to be
elected to the Maritime Safety Committee "on the strength of their
tonnage" should be those nations which were in a position to make
a contribution to the work of the Cornmittee through their know-
ledge and experience in the field of maritime safety, which re-
quirement Liberia and Panama did not fulfil.
For his part, the representative of the United States of America
explained the way in which that country interpreted Article 28 (a).

He stated:
"That Article called on the Assembly to elect from among the
Member Governments which had an important interest in maritime
safety the eight nations which were the largest shipowners, as shown
by the statistical tables inLloyd's Registe...Article 28 stipulated
that no less than eight should be 'the largest ship-owning nations'
and not merely 'large ship-owningnations' ...they should be elected
automatically."
Later he said that he could not accept the argument advanced
by the United Kingdom representative to the effect that the ability
of countries to contribute to the work of the Maritime Safety Com-
mittee by their expert knowledge and experience was a criterion of
eligibilityseparate from that of status as one of the largest ship-
owning nations. In no circumstances should the two nations whose
combined registered tonnage represented 15 per cent. of the active
fleet of the entire world be excluded from membership of the
Cornmittee.

Other States, Members of the Assembly, participated in the
debate, but in so far as they expressed any views on the inter-
pretation to be placed upon Article 28 (a) these appear to be re-
flected in the statements above referred to.
Itis in these circumstances that the question whether the Maritime
Safety Committee was constituted in accordance with Article 28 (a)
comes before the Court.

The Court will now proceed to consider the answer which should
be given to the question submitted to it.flottes représentant les plus forts tonnages de jauge brute. Quant à
la question du nom et de la nationalité des propriétaires ou des
actionnaires des compagnies de navigation, elle ne devait pas inter-
venir en la matière, car elle eût introduit un critère inutilement
compliqué.

Le représentant des Pays-Bas a déclaréque la notion de pays
possédant les flottes de commerce les plus importantes ne coïncidait
pas nécessairement avec celle de nations ayant le tonnage immatri-
culé le plus important; bien au contraire il se pouvait que le ton-
nage immatriculé d'un pays ne traduisit nullement sa véritable
importance en tant que nation possédant une flotte de commerce.
On a également fait valoir que les Membres qui devaient être
élusau Comité de la Sécuritémaritime « en raison du tonnage de
leur flotte))devaient êtreles pays qui étaient à mêmede contribuer
aux travaux du Comitépar leurs connaissances et leur compétence
en matière de sécuritémaritime et que ni le Libéria ni le Panama

ne remplissaient ces conditions.
D'un autre côté, le représentant des États-unis d'Amérique a
expliqué la manière dont son pays interprétait l'article 28 a). Il
a déclaré:
Cetarticle enjointà l'Assembléed'élireparmi lesgouvernements
membres despays qui ont un intérêt important dansles questions
de sécurité maritime,les huit pays qui possèdent lesflottes les plus
importantes comme il ressort des tableaux statistiques de la Lloyd
..l'article28 spécifieque huit au moins de ces pays doivent être
ceux qui possèdent ((les flottes les plus importantes))et non pas
(des flottes importantes »...Ils doivent êtreélusd'offic».
Plus tard, il a dit qu'il ne pouvait accepter l'argument invoquépar

le représentant du Royaume-Uni, à savoir que la mesure dans
laquelle les pays pouvaient contribuer aux travaux du Comité
de la Sécuritémaritime grâce à leurs connaissances et à leur expé-
rience techniques constituait un critère d'éligibilitéautre que l'état
de nation se classant parmi celles qui possédaient les flottes de
commerce les plus importantes. Les deux nations dont le tonnage
immatriculé réuni représentait quinze pour cent de la flotte en
activité dans le monde entier ne devaient êtreécartéesdu Comité
sous aucun prétexte.
D'autres États membres de l'Assembléeont pris part au débat

mais, dans la mesure où ils ont exprimé des opinions sur l'interpré-
tation qu'il convenait d'attacher à l'article 28 a), ces opinions
semblent reflétéesdans les déclarations citées plus haut.
C'est dans ces conditions que la question de savoir si le Comité
de la Sécuritémaritime a étéétabli conformément à l'article 28 a)
a étéposée à la Cour.

La Cour va maintenant examiner la réponse à donner à la ques-
tion qui lui est soumise. One of the functions of the Assembly is, in accordance with
Article 16 (d) of the Convention, "to elect the Members ...on the
Maritime Safety Committee as provided in Article 28". The scope
and character of this function of the Assembly are accordingly to
be found in Article 28. This function can only be exercised under
the conditions laid down by that Article.
Article 28 (a) provides that the fourteen Members of the Com-
mittee shall be elected by the Assembly from the Members, Govern-
ments of those nations having an important interest in maritime
safety, of which not less than eight shall be the largest ship-owning
nations. The remainder of the members are to be elected so as to

ensure adequate representation of other nations with an important
interest in maritime safety such as nations interested in supplying
large numbers of crews or in the carriage of large numbers of pas-
sengers and of major geographical areas.

It has been contended before the Court that the Assembly was
entitled to refuse to elect Liberia and Panama, by virtue of a
discretion claimed to be vested in it under Article 28 (a). The sub-
stance of the argument is as follows: The Assembly is vested with
a discretionary power to determine which Members of the Organi-
zation have "an important interest in maritime safety" and con-
sequently in discharging its duty to elect the eight largest ship-
owning nations, it is empowered to exclude as unqualified for
election those nations that in its judgment do not have such an
interest. Furthermore, it was submitted that this discretionary
power extended also to the determination of which nations were

or were not "the largest ship-owning nations".

In the first place, it was sought to find in the expression "elected",
which applies to al1 Members of the Committee, a notion of choice
which was said to imply an individual judgment on each member
to be elected and a free appraisal as to the qualifications of that
member. This was said to apply to both the election of the eight
largest ship-owning nations and to that of the remainder of six.
The contention assumes a meaning to be accorded to the word
"elected" and then applies that meaning to Article 28 (a) and inter-
prets its provisions accordingly. In so doing it places in a subordinate
position the specificprovision of the Article in relation to the eight
"largest ship-owning nations".
The meaning of the word "elected" in the Article cannot be
determined in isolation by recourse to its usual or common meaning
and attaching that meaning to the word where used in the Article.

The word obtains its meaning from the context in which it is used.
If the context requires a meaning which connotes a wide choice,
it must be construed accordingly, just as it must be given a restric-
tive meaning if the context in which it is used so requires.
12 D'après l'article 16 d) de la Convention, l'une des fonctions de
l'Assembléeest d'ccélire les Membres ...au Comité de la Sécurité
maritime, conformément à l'article 28». La portée et la nature de
cette fonction de l'Assembléesont donc définies à l'article 28. Cette
fonction ne peut s'exercer que dans les conditions énoncéespar cet
article.
L'article 28 a) prescrit que les quatorze membres du Comité
sont éluspar l'Assembléeparmi les Membres, gouvernements des
pays qui ont un intérêtimportant dans les questions de sécurité
maritime. Huit au moins de ces pays doivent êtreceux qui pos-

sè'dentles flottes de commerce les plus importantes. L'électiondes
autres membres doit assurer une représentation adéquate d'une
part aux autres pays quiont un intérêtimportant dans les questions
de sécuritémaritime, tels que les pays dont les ressortissants entrent
en grand nombre dans la composition des équipages ou qui sont
intéressésau transport d'un grand nombre de passagers, et d'autre
part aux principales régions géographiques.
Il a étésoutenu devant la Cour que l'Assembléeavait le droit
de refuser d'élire le Libéria et le Panama en vertu d'un pouvoir
discrétionnaire qui lui aurait étéconférépar l'article 28 a). L'argu-

ment est en substance celui-ci: l'Assembléeest investie d'un pou-
voir discrétionnaire pour déterminer quels sont les Membres de
l'organisation qui ont cun intérêtimportant dans les questions
de sécurité maritime » et par conséquent, en accomplissant sa
mission d'élireles huit pays qui possèdent les flottes de commerce
les plus importantes, l'Assembléea le pouvoir d'écarter comme ne
remplissant pas les conditions d'éligibilitéceux qui, à son avis,
n'ont pas cet intérêt.On a soutenu en outre que ce pouvoir dis-
crétionnaire s'étendait également àla détermination des pays possé-
dant ou non (cles flottes de commerce les plus importantes ».

Tout d'abord, on a voulu voir dans le mot (élus »,qui s'applique
à tous les membres du Comité,une idéede choix qui impliquerait
un jugement individuel sur chacun des membres à élire, ainsique la
liberté d'appréciation des qualifications de ces membres. On a
prétendu que cela s'appliquait aussi bien à l'élection deshuit pays
possédant les flottes de commerce les plus importantes qu'à celle
des six autres pays. Cette thèse postule le sens à attribuer au mot
((élus »,puis elle l'applique à l'article 28 a) dont elle interprète en
conséquence les dispositions. Ce faisant, elle relègue au second
plan la disposition expresse de l'article qui vise les huit pays «qui

possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus importantes ».
On ne saurait déterminer le sens du mot « élus ))isolément et
par référence à son sens usuel et ordinaire, puis lui attribuer ce
sens toutes les fois qu'il est employé dans l'article. Le mot tire
son sens du contexte dans lequel il est employé. Si le contexte
appelle un sens qui indique un large pouvoir de choix, il doit s'in-
terpréter en conséquence, tout comme il doit se voir attribuer un
ç~~nrsestreint si le contexte l'exige.159 MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)
An example is provided in Articles 16 (d) and 17 (4 and (d),

where the words "elect" and "elected" are also used. Whatever
the margin of choice or individual appraisal which exists in the
Assembly in relation to the election of any Member of the Council,
that margin of choice or appraisal is one which is no greater than
is permitted by the terms of those Articles read with Article 18.
The words "elect" and "elected" are construed accordingly.
So, too, in relation to the word "elected" in Article 28, where
first therein appearing. Here it is used for the designation of all
fourteen Members of the Committee, that is to Say, of the two
categories of Members, and for the first of these the words employed
are "shall be" which, on their face, are mandatory. If these words
involve an obligatory designation, to which question the Courtwill
hereafter direct itself, there is an evident contrast between, on the
one hand, such a designation and, on the other hand, a free choice.
If the words "cf which not less than eight shall be the largest
ship-owning nations" do involve an obligatory designation of such
nations that satisfy that qualification, the use of the word "elected"
to cover the designation of two categories, one of which would be
determined on the basis of a definite and pre-established criterion

whilst the other would be a matter of choice, cannot convert the
designation of the eight nations into an elective procedure which
would be contrary to the pre-established criterion.
In the second place it is contended that "having an important
interest in maritime safety" is a dominant condition in the qualifi-
cation for membership on the Committee and being one of the
"eight largest ship-owning nations" is a subordinate condition.
These two conditions are said to be of a cumulative character with
the possession of "an important interest" as the controlling re-
quirement. According to this view fulfilment alone of the condition
by any State of being one of the eight largest ship-owning nations
does not by itself confer eligibility on a Member State to be ap-
pointed to the Committee inasmuch as, it is contended, the word
"elected" connotes a discretion in the Assembly to choose from
among those qualified under the condition of having an important
interest in maritime safety.

It is further claimed that the words "ship-owning nations" have

a meaning which embraces consideration of many factors, and that
the Assembly was, in the exercise of its discretion, entitled to take
those factors into account in the election of the Committee.

The words of Article 28 (a) must be read in their natural and
ordinary meaning, in the sense which they would normally have in
their context. It is only if, when this is done, the words of the COMITÉ DE LA SÉCURITÉ MARITIME (AVIS DU 8 VI 60)
159
On en trouve un exemple aux articles 16 d) et 17 c) et d) où

figurent également les mots ((élire ))et ((élus 1).Quelle que soit la
marge de choix ou d'appréciation individuelle dont dispose l'As-
semblée pour l'élection d'un membre du Conseil, cette marge de
choix ou d'appréciation ne dépassepas celle qui est permise par les
termes de ces articles lus à la lumière de l'article 18. Les mots

((élire ))et ((élus ))s'interprètent en conséquence.
Il en est de mêmedu mot ((élus ))tel qu'il figure au début de
l'article 28. Ce terme vise alors la désignation de l'ensemble des
quatorze membres du Comité, c'est-à-dire des deux catégories de
membres. En outre, pour la première catégorie, le texte emploie la

formule ((doivent être ))qui présente à première vue un caractère
impératif. Si ces mots impliquent une désignation obligatoire,
question que la Cour examinera plus tard, le contraste est évident
entre cette désignation d'une part et un libre choix d'autre part.
Si la phrase ((Huit au moins de ces pays doivent êtreceux qui

possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus importantes ))entraîne
la désignation obligatoire des pays qui remplissent cette condition,
l'emploi des mots ((élus ))et ((élection )pour viser la désignation des
deux catégories, nomméesl'une sur la base d'un critère définiet
préétabli et l'autre sur la base d'un choix, ne peut donner à la
désignation des huit le caractère d'une procédure d'élection qui

serait contraire au critère préétabli.
En second lieu, on soutient que la condition d'avoir ((un intérêt
important dans les questions de sécurité maritime ))est une condi-
tion prédominante d'éligibilitéau Comité de la Sécuritémaritime
et que celle d'être l'un des «huit pays possédant les flottes de

commerce les plus importantes )) est une condition secondaire.
On fait valoir que ces deux conditions s'ajoutent l'une à l'autre
mais que celle d'avoir ((un intérêt important dans les questions de
sécuritémaritime ))est déterminante. Selon cette opinion, le seul
fait de remplir la condition d'être l'undes huit pays possédant

les flottes de,commerce les plus importantes ne suffit pas en soi
à rendre un Etat membre éligibleau Comité, en tant que le mot
« élus » indique, soutient-on, que l'Assemblée jouit du pouvoir
discrétionnaire de choisir parmi ceux qui satisfont à la condition
d'avoir un intérêtimportant dans les questions desécuritémaritime.

On soutient en outre que l'expression (pays possédant des flottes
de commerce ))a une signification qui embrasse la considération
de nombreux élémentset que, dans l'exercice de son pouvoir dis-
crétionnaire, l'Assemblée avait le droit de tenir compte de ces
élémentspour l'électiondu Comité.

Les termes de l'article 28 a) doivent êtreinterprétés suivant leur
signification naturelle et ordinaire, selon le sens qu'ils ont normale-

ment dans leur contexte; si les termes de l'article demeurent équi-
13Article are ambiguous in any way that resort need be had to other
methods of construction. (Competenceof the General Assembly for
the Admission of a State to the United Nations, I.C.J. Reports1950,

P From the terms of Article 28 (a) it is clear that the draftsmen
deliberately contemplated that the preponderant control of the

Committee was in al1 circumstances to be vested in "the largest
ship-owning nations". This control was to be secured by the pro-
vision that not less than eight of the fourteen seats had to be filled
by them. The language employed-"of which not less than eight
shall be the largest ship-owning nations"-in its natural and
ordinary meaning conveys this intent of the draftsmen.

The words "having an important interest in maritime safety"
clearly express a qualification for membership on the Committee
which is required of each group referred to in Article 28 (a). But,
in the context of the whole provision, possession of this interest is
implied in relation to the eight largest ship-owning nations as a
consequence of the language employed. This particular condition
of being one of the eight such nations describes the nature of the
required interest in maritime safety and constitutes that interest.

This interpretation accords with the structure of the Article.
Having provided that "not less than eight shall be the largest ship-
owning nations", the Article goes on to provide that the remainder
shall be elected so as to ensure adequate representation of "other
nations" with an important interest in maritime safety-nations
other than the eight largest ship-owning nations, "such as nations
interested in the supply of large numbers of crews" etc., as con-
trasted with "the largest ship-owning nations". The use of the
words "other nations" and "such as" in their context confirms
this interpretation.

The argument based on discretion would permit the Assembly,
in use only of its discretion, to decide through its vote which nations
have or do not have an important interest in maritime safety and

to deny membership on the Committee to any State regardless of
the size ofits tonnage or any other qualification. The effect of such
an interpretation would be to render superfluous the greater part
of Article 28(a) and to erect the discretion of the Assembly as the
supreme rule for the constitution of the Maritime Safety Committee.
This would in the opinion of the Court be incompatible with the
principle underlying the Article.

The underlying principle of Article 28 (a) is that the largest ship-
owning nations shall be in predominance on the Committee. No

14voques, c'est alors seulement qu'il faut recourir à d'autres méthodes
d'interprétation. (Compétencede l'Assembléegénérale pour l'admis-
sion d'un Etat aux Nations Unies, C. I. J.Recueil 1950, p. 8.)

Aux termes de l'article 28 a), il est clair que ses rédacteurs ont
délibérémentprévu que le contrôle prépondérant du Comité doit
toujours revenir aux pays «qui possèdent les flottes de commerce
les plus importantes D.Ce contrôle doit êtreassuré par la disposi-
tion selon laquelle huit au moins des quatorze siègesdoivent revenir
à ces pays. Les termes employés - ((Huit au moins de ces pays
doivent êtreceux qui possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus

importantes » -, pris dans leur sens normal et ordinaire, indiquent
bien que telle a étél'intention des rédacteurs.
Il est clair que l'expression ((qui ont un intérêtimportant dans
les questions de sécuritémaritime » formule une condition d'éligi-
bilité au Comitéexigéepour chaque catégorie de membres visée à
l'article 28 a). Mais, dans le contexte de l'ensemble de l'article, la
rédaction employéeimplique que les huit pays possédant les flottes

de commerce les plus importantes ont un tel intérêt. Lacondition
particulière d'être l'unde ces huit pays définitla nature de l'intérêt
exigédans les questions de sécuritémaritime et correspond audit
intérêt.
Cette interprétation s'accorde avec la structure de l'article.
Ayant poséque (Huit au moins de ces pays doivent êtreceux qui
possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus importantes )),l'article

continue en disposant que l'élection des autres membres doit
assurer une représentation adéquate aux ((autres pays » qui ont
un intérêtimportant dans les questions de sécuritémaritime -
c'est-à-dire aux pays autres que les huit qui possèdent les flottes
de commerce les plus importantes, cctels que les pays dont les
ressortissants entrent en grand nombre dans la composition des
équipages »,etc. par opposition aux pays (qui possèdent les flottes

de commerce les plus importantes », L'emploi des termes ((autres
pays ))et (tels que ))dans leur contexte confirme cette interpré-
tation.
L'argument fondé sur le pouvoir discrétionnaire permettrait à
l'Assemblée,dans le seul exercice de son pouvoir discrétionnaire, de
déciderpar son vote quels pays ont ou n'ont pas un intérêtimpor-
tant dans les questions de sécuritémaritime et de refuser d'élireun
Etat au Comité sans égard à l'importance de son tonnage ou à

toute autre condition. Cette interprétation aurait pour effet de
rendre superflue la plus grande partie de l'article 28 a) et de faire
du pouvoir discrétionnaire de l'Assembléela règlesuprêmerégissant
la composition du Comitéde la Sécuritémaritime. Cela serait, de
l'avis de la Cour, incompatible avec le principe sur lequel repose
l'article.
Le principe sur lequel repose l'article 28 a) est la prédominance

au sein du Comité des pays qui possèdent les flottes de commerceinterpretation of the Article which is not consonant with this
pnnciple is admissible.
It was to express this principle that the words "of which not less
than eight shall be the largest ship-owning nations" were written
into the Article. These words cannot be construed as if they read
"of which not less than eight sha.ll represent (or be representative
of) the largest ship-owning nations". Whichever were the largest
ship-owning nations they were necessarily to be appointed to the
Committee; that they each possessed an important interest in
maritime safety was accepted as axiomatic; itwas inherent in their
status of the eight largest ship-owning nations.

* * *

The history of the Article and the debate which took place upon
the drafts of thesame in the United Maritime Consultative Council,
which at the request of the Economic and Social Council of the
United Nations drew up the text of the Convention for recom-
mendation to Member Governments, confirm the principle indicated
ab0i.e.
The first draft of the Article underwent a number of changes as
it evolved. As drafted in July 1946 by a Committee which met in
London, it read as follows:
"The Maritime Safety Committeeshall consist of twelve Member
Govemments selected by the Assembly from the Govemments of
those nations having an important interest in maritime safety and
owning substantial amounts of merchant shipping, of which no
less than nine shall be the largest ship-owning nations and the
remainder shall be selected so as toensure representation for the
major geographical areas. The Maritime Safety Committee shall
have power to adjust the number of its members with the approval
of the Council."
The nine largest ship-owning nations were self-evidently nations
owning substantial amounts of merchant shipping. The first nine
largest ship-owning nations were to be on the Committee in any
event. In this respect the use in the original English text of the

definite article "the", which is maintained throughout each draft
and finds expression in Article 28 (a), has a significance which
cannot be ignored. It was inserted with evident deliberation. This
accords with the record of the various drafts and the discussions
which took place on them.

The three nations representative of major geographical areas
comprising the "remainder" had to satisfy the dual qualification
15les plus i~riportantes. Toute interprétation de l'article qui ne
concorde pas avec ce principe est inadmissible.

C'est pour exprimer ce principe que la phrase «Huit au moins
de ces pays doivent êtreceux qui possèdent les flottes de commerce
les plus importantes » a étéinséréedans l'article. Cette phrase ne
saurait êtreinterprétéecomme si elle énonçait: «Huit au moins de
ces pays doivent représenter (ou êtrereprésentatifs de) ceux qui
possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus importantes ».Quels que
fussent les pays possédant les flottes de commerce les plus im-
portantes, ces pays devaient nécessairement êtreappelésau Comité;
l'intérêtimportant de chacun d'eux dans les questions de sécurité
maritime était admis comme allant de soi; cela était inhérent au
fait qu'ils étaient les huit pays possédant les flottes de commerce
les plus importantes.

L'historique de l'article 28 a) et les débats sur le projet d'article
tenus au sein du United Maritime ConsultativeCouncil, qui a établi
à la demande du Conseil économique et social des Nations Unies
le texte de la convention à recommander aux gouvernements
Membres, confirment le principe ci-dessus indiqué.

Le projet initial de l'article a subi par la suite un certain nombre
de changements. Préparéen juillet 1946 par un comité siégeant à
Londres, ce projet énonçait:

nements contractants, choisispar l'Assembléeparmi lesnations que
les questions de sécurité maritime intéressent particulièrementet
qui possèdent un nombre considérablede navires de commerce,
neuf au moins devant êtreceux qui possèdent les marinesde com-
merce lesplus puissantes; les autres membres sont choisis de façon
à assurer une représentationdes principales régions géographiques.
LeComité dela Sécuritémaritime a pouvoir demodifierlenombre de
ses membres avecl'approbation du Conseil. ))

Les neuf pays possédant les marines de commerce les plus
puissantes étaient évidemment des pays possédant un nombre
considérable de navires de commerce. Les neuf pays possédant les
marines de commerce les plus puissantes devaient en tout état de
cause siéger au Comité. A cet égard, la présence dans le texte
anglais original de l'articledéfini« the »,qui sera maintenu dans
chaque projet et que l'on retrouvera dans l'article 28a), a une

importance qu'on ne saurait négliger. Il est évident que ce mot a
étéinséréde propos délibéréC . 'est ceque confirment les textes des
divers projets et les procès-verbaux relatifs aux discussions qui
ont eu lieu à leur sujet.
Les trois pays représentant les principales régionsgéographiques
et constituant les «autres membres » devaient répondre à deux
15both of having an important interest in maritime safety and also
owning a substantial amount of shipping.

At this stage there was a deliberate intention on the part of the
drafters to confine the membership of the Committee to a very

limited number of nations and to have it controlled by the nine
largest ship-owning nations. This is apparent in the Report of the
Drafting Committee. This Report stated that the proposed Com-
mittee "will include the largest ship-owning nations" (as distinct
from nations owning substantial amounts of merchant shipping)
and that this "is of great importance to its successful operation".
Provision was also made, it continued, "for representation of other
ship-owning nations from al1 parts of the world" (other,as distinct
from the nine largest), "thus giving recognition to the world-wide
interest in the problems involved".

To have suggested that, although a nation was the largest or one
of the nine largest ship-owning nations it was within the discretion
of the Assembly to determine that it was not a nation "owning
substantial amounts of merchant shipping" or did not have an
''important interest in maritime safety" would have been unreal.

Those qualifications were patently inherent in a nation being one
of the nine largest ship-owning nations.

The second draft was submitted by the United States at the
Conference of the United Maritime Consultative Council held in
Washington in 1946. It followed the fo-rmof the first draft. Apart
from substituting the word "having" for "owning" substantial
amounts of merchant shipping, the substantive alteration was to
omit the provision in the Drafting Committee's draft which enabled
the Maritime Safety Committee to adjust the number of its Members
with the approval of the Council. The proportion between the largest
ship-owning nations and the remainder was to be unchangeable.
There was to be no freedom for the Members of the Assembly to
depart from what were contemplated to be clear provisions gov-
erning the proportion between the two.

This predominance on the Committee of the nine did not seem
acceptable to some Members of the Conference, India especially,
which had put forward to the Drafting Committee its own proposa1
which, however, that Committee had not felt empowered to sub-
stitute for the original wording of the Article because it invoked a
matter of principle.
A third draft was then put forward by the Drafting Committee,
which was in two versions. The first was based on the United
I6conditions: appartenir aux nations que les questions de sécurité
maritime intéressent particulièrement et posséder un nombre
considérable de navires de commerce.
A ce stade les rédacteurs avaient l'intention délibéréede n'ad-
mettre au Comité qu'un nombre de pays très limité, la prépondé-

rance revenant aux neuf pays qui possédaient les marines de
commerce les plus puissantes. C'est ce que prouve le rapport du
comité de rédaction. Il est dit dans ce texte que le Comité envisagé
comprendra les pays qui possèdent les marines de commerce les
plus puissantes » (à distinguer de ceux qui possèdent un nombre
considérable de navires de commerce) et que cela (présentera une
grande importance pour le succès de son fonctionnement 1).Le

rapport prévoit également ((la représentation d'autres pays possé-
dant des flottes de commerce et situés dans toutes les parties du
monde ))(c'est-à-dire d'autres pays que les neuf qui possèdent les
marines de commerce les plus puissantes) ((pour traduire l'intérêt
mondial suscité par les problèmes en cause N.
Il aurait été sans rapport avec la réalité de supposer qu'alors
mêmequ'un pays possédait la marine de commerce la plus puis-
sante ou l'une des neuf marines de commerce les plus puissantes,

l'Assemblée avait le pouvoir discrétionnaire de décider qu'il ne
s'agissait pas d'un pays possédant ((un nombre considérable de
navires de commerce 1)ou d'un pays «que les questions de sécurité
maritime intéressent particulièrement 1).Ces qualifications étaient
évidemment inhérentes à chacun des neuf pays possédant les
marines de commerce les plus puissantes,
Le second projet a étéprésentépar les Etats-Unis àla Conférence

du United Maritime Consultative Cou~zciltenue à Washington en
1946. II suivait la forme du premier projet. En dehors de la substi-
tution de (qui ont un nombre considérable de navires de commerce 1)
à ((qui possèdent un nombre considérable de navires de commerce )),.
la modification importante qu'il apportait était de supprimer, dans
le projet du comité de rédaction, la disposition qui donnait au
Comitéde la Sécuritémaritime le pouvoir de modifier, avec l'appro-

bation du Conseil,le nombre des membres le composant. Le rapport
numérique entre les pays possédant les marines de commerce les
plus puissantes et les autres devait rester immuable. Les membres
de l'Assemblée n'avaient pas latitude de s'écarter de ce que l'on
entendait être des dispositions précises fixant le rapport entre les
deux groupes.
Cette prépondérance des neuf au sein du Comité n'a pas paru

acceptable à certains membres de la Conférence, l'Inde notamment
qui avait soumis sa propre proposition au comité de rédaction; mais
ce dernier ne s'était pas estimé habilité à modifier la rédaction
originale del'article, ce qui aurait impliqué une question de principe.

Un troisième projet a étéalors présentépar le comitéderédaction
.en deux versions différentes. La première se fondait sur le projetStates' draft and, in fact, followed it word for word. It sought to
restrict the whole of the membership to nations having both im-
portant interests in maritime safety and substantial amounts of
shipping. The nine largest ship-owning nations spokefor themselves
in tenns of both these criteria but the remainder of three would
have to satisfy the Assembly that they qualified under both. The
intention of this draft was to confine the whole Committee to
nations having substantial amounts of shipping.

The alternative draft (submitted by the Drafting Committee
after discussion of the amendment proposed by India) is of special
importance. It reflects the struggle of those who sought to reduce
the predominance in the Maritime Safety Committee of the nine
largest ship-owning nations, and to prevent it from being under the
exclusive control of nations "having substantial amounts of ship-
ping". The Indian delegate was to point out during the debate on
the drafts, which took place in the United Maritime Consultative
Council on 28 October 1946, that other countries "who did not
actually own or have a large number of merchant vessels" had also
important interests in maritime safety.

The alternative draft accordingly struck out the words "and
having substantial amounts of shipping", retained the total mem-
bership at twelve, but altered the ratio between "the largest ship-
owning nations" and the remainder from nine and three to seven
and five.

This was the subject of debate at the meeting of the United
Maritime Consultative Council on 28 October 1946.
Objection was taken by the representative of Denmark to the
Indian proposal, on the ground that it meant that the Maritime
Safety Committee would be composed of twelve Member Govern-
ments of which not less than seven "would have to be the largest
ship-owning nationsJ'. He could not agree unless the total number
were increased to fourteen, "of which nine would have to be the
largest ship-owning nations". The Indian representative considered
that a ratio of seven (largest ship-owning nations) to five (other
nations) was a fair ratio. The United States representative said
that "the underlying principle which was generally accepted by
all" was that "the largest ship-owning nations should be in pre-
dominance in the Maritime Safety Committee".

In the result, the matter was held in abeyance for informa1 dis-

cussions between maritime experts from the United Kingdom and
the United States of America and representatives of Denmark and
India.
17 des États-unis et, en fait, le suivait mot pour mot. Elle visait à
n'admettre au Comité que les pays que les questions de sécurité

maritime intéressaient particulièrement et qui avaient aussi un
nombre considérable de navires de commerce. Les neuf pays
possédant les marines de commerce les plus puissantes satisfaisaient
d'eux-mêmes à ces deux conditions mais les trois autres auraient à
faire la preuve devant l'Assembléequ'ils satisfaisaient à l'une et à
l'autre. L'objectif du projet était de limiter l'accès du Comitéaux
pays ayant un nombre considérable de navires de commerce.
L'autre version du projet d'article (présentéepar le comité de
rédaction après discussion de l'amendement proposé par l'Inde)
revêt uneimportance particulière. Elle reflète les efforts de ceux qui

cherchaient à limiter la prédominance au Comité de la Sécurité
maritime des neuf pays possédant les marines de commerce les plus
puissantes et à empêcherque le Comitéfût uniquement dirigé par
des pays ayant (un nombre considérable de navires de commerce ».
Le délégué de l'Inde devait souligner, au cours de la discussion sur
les projets de texte tenue le 28 octobre 1946 au sein du United
Maritime ConsultativeCouncil,que les questionsdesécuritémaritime
intéressaient particulièrement d'autres pays ((qui, en fait, ne
possédaient pas ou n'avaient pas un grand nombre de navires de

commerce ».
On a donc supprimé dans cette dernière version du projet les
mots n et quiont un nombre considérable de navires de commerce »
et maintenu à douze le nombre total des membres du Comité,mais
en modifiant le rapport de neuf à trois entre les pays possédant
«les marines de commerce les plus puissantes )et les autres, pour.
le ramener au rapport de sept à cinq.
C'est ce qui a fait l'objet d'un débat à la séance tenue par le
United Maritime ConsultativeCouncil le 28 octobre 1946.
Le représentant du Danemark s'est opposé à la proposition

indienne car elle signifiait,selon,lui, que le Comitéde la Sécurité
maritime comprendrait douze Etats membres, «sept au moins
devant être ceux qui possèdent les marines de commerce les plus
puissantes ».Il ne pouvait donner son accord que si le nombre to-
tal des membres était porté à quatorze, ((neuf au moins devant être
ceux qui possèdent les marines de commerce les plus puissantes ».
Le représentant de l'Inde estimait qu'un rapport de sept (pays
possédant les marines de commerce les plus puissantes) à cinq
(autres pays) était équitable. Le représentant des États-unis a

déclaré que ((le principe de base généralementaccepté par tous »
était que «les pays possédant les marines de commerce les plus
puissantes devaient avoir la prédominance au sein du Comitéde
la Sécuritémaritime ».
En fin de compte la question a étélaisséeen suspens pour faire
l'objet de discussions officieuses entre les experts maritimes du
Royaume-Uni et des États-unis d'Amérique et les représentants
du Danemark et de l'Inde. There emerged a final draft which followed the alternative draft,
and which increased thetotal membership to fourteen, of which not
less than eight were to be the largest ship-owning nations. This
draft \vas in the following terms:

"The Maritime Safety Committee shall consist of fourteen Mem-
ber Govemments selected by the Assembly from the Govemments
of those nations having an important interest in maritime safety,
of which not less than eight shall be the largest ship-owningnations,
and the remainder shall be selected so as to ensure adequate repre-
sentation of other nations with important interests in maritime
safety and of major geographical areas..."

This was the draft which came before the United Nations Mari-
time Conference at Geneva, held in February and March 1948, and
a working party on Maritime Safety was set up on 27 February.
At the meeting of the Working Party held on 28 February 1948, a
proposal was made by India to fashion the draft along the lines
of the present Article 17. It met with opposition and was rejected.
India then proposed the addition to the draft article of words to
the effect of those now appearing in the text of Article 28 (a),
namely, "such as nations interested in the supply of large numbers
of crews or in the carriage of large numbers ..of passengers". This
proposa1 was also rejected by the Working Party but was sub-
sequently incorporated in Article 28 (a)after the words "of other
nations with an important interest in maritime safety". The present
text in al1essential aspects was adopted on I March 1948 "subject ...
to drafting changes". No further discussions are recorded and the
text which presently appearsin the Convention was finally adopted
on 5 March 1948.

Cnder the first three drafts of the Article, the nine largest ship-
owning nations had in any event to be on the Committee. When
the subsequent drafts increased the total membership to fourteen,
altered the ratio on the Committee between the largest ship-owning
nations and other countries, and effected the other amendments

already indicated, the intention that it should be obligatory upon
the Assembly to appoint to the Committeea predominating number
of the largest ship-owning nations remained constant; instead,
however, of being at least the nine largest, it was to be at least the
eight largest.

The determination to retain the predominance of the largest
ship-owning nations finds expression in Article 28 (a), the terms of
which exclude the possibility of an interpretation which would
authorize the Assembly to refuse membership on the Committee
18 to any one or more of the eight largest ship-owning nations.

It has been suggested that the word "elected" where it first
appears in Article 28 (a) was deliberately chosen in order to confer
on the Assembly a wide authority to appraise the relative qualifi-
cations of Member States for election to the Committee. The fact
is, however, that this word found its way into the Article at some
time between I March 1948, when the Article was adopted "subject
..to drafting changes", and four days after, namely, on 5 March
1948. It replaced the word "selected" which had appeared in every
draft of the Articlesince 1946.
There was apparently no explanation for, or any discussion on,
the alteration. It was a mere drafting change. If the word "elected"
had the special significance sought to be attached to it, it seems
unlikely that the word would have found its way into the Article
in this manner.
What Article 28 (a) requires the Assembly to do is to determine
which of its Members are the eight "largest ship-owning nations"
within the meaning which these words bear. That is the sole content
of its function in relation to them. The words of the Article "of
which not less than eight shall be the largest ship-owning nations"
have a mandatory and imperative sense and precisely carry out
the intention of the framers of the Convention.

The Court must now consider the meaning of the words "the
largest ship-owning nations".
In the opinion of the Netherlands Government, set out in its

Written Statement, "the term 'ship-owning nations' is ...not suit-
able for legal analysis; it cannot be decomposed into elements
which have any specific legal connotation ..:even the fact that the
merchant fleet, flying the flag of a particular State, is owned by
nationals of that State cannot in itself qualify that State as a ship-
owning nation". Registration and the right to fly the flag and
national ownership of merchant vessels "may, together with other
factors", it contended, "be relevant for the determination by the
Assembly whether or not a State can be considered as a 'ship-
owning nation' ", but "they do not either separately or jointly
impress upon a State the quality required ...".

The view of the Government of the United Kingdom, which
appears to express the common view of that Government and that
of the Netherlands, is set out in the Written Statement of the
United Kingdom as follows:

19Comité un ou plusieurs des huit pays possédant les flottes de
commerce les plus-importantes.

On a fait observer que le mot ((élus ))qui figure au début de
l'article 28 a) avait étéretenu délibérémenp tour conférerà 1'Assem-
blée un pouvoir d'appréciation étendu quant aux qualifications
respectives des États membres en vue de l'électionau Comité. Le
fait est cependant que ce mot a étéintroduit dans l'article entre
le ler mars 1948, date à laquelle l'article a étéadopté ((sous réserve

... de modifications de rédaction », et le 5 mars 1948, soit quatre
jours plus tard. Il remplaçait le mot (choisis ))qui avait figurédans
tous les projets d'article depuis 1946.
Apparemment cet amendement n'a étéaccompagné d'aucune
explication et n'a pas étédiscuté. Il ne s'agissait que d'une simple

modification de rédaction. Si le mot ccélus )) avait -l'importance
particulière que l'on s'efforce d'y attacher, il semble improbable
qu'il eût étéintroduit dans l'article de cette manière.
Ce que l'article 28a) prescrit à l'Assemblée, c'estde déterminer
quels sont ceux de ses membres qui sont les huit pays (qui possè-
dent les flottes de commerce les plus importantes )suivant le sens

de ces mots. Telle est la seule fonction de l'Assemblée à cet égard.
Les termes de l'article ((Huit au moins de ces pays doivent êtreceux
qui possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus importantes ))ont
un sens impératif et obligatoire et ils correspondent précisément
à l'intention des rédacteurs de la Convention.

La Cour doit maintenant examiner le sens de l'expression: pays
((qui possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus importantes ».
Selon l'opinion du Gouvernement néerlandais telle qu'elle est

énoncéedans son exposéécrit, ((l'expression ((pays possédant une
flotte de commerce ))n'est pas susceptible d'analyse juridique; elle
ne saurait être décomposée enélémentsayant une signification
juridique donnée ...mêmele fait que les navires de commerce
battant,pavillon d'un Etat donnéappartiennent à des ressortissants
de cet Etat ne saurait en soi faire de cet Etat un pays ((possédant

une flotte de commerce ))n. Les Pays-Bas soutiennent que l'imma-
triculation, le droit de battre pavillon et le fait que les navires
marchands appartiennent à des ressortissants ((peuvent en même
temps que d'autres faits êtrepertinents pour la détermination par
l'Assembléedu point de savoir si un État peut ou non êtreconsidéré
comme ((possédant une flotte de commerce ))))mais que ces faits

qu'on les prenne isolément oudans leur ensemble .. ne sauraient
conférer à un Etat ))cette qualité.
L'opinion du Gouvernement du Royaume-Uni, qui se révèleêtre
l'opinion commune de ce Gouvernement et de celui des Pays-Bas,
est ainsi énoncéedans l'exposéécrit du Royaume-Uni:166 MARITIME SAFETY COM3IITTEE (OPIXION OF 8 VI 60)
"The expression 'the largest ship-owningnations' has no apparent
clear-cut or technical meaning...It is submitted that the intention
of those words was to enable the Assembly in the process of election
to look at the realities of the situation and to determine according
to its own judgment, whether or not candidates for election to the
Maritime Safety Committee could properly be regarded as the
'largest ship-owningnations' in a real and substantial sens..these
words, while intended to guide the Assembly, were at the same time
deliberately framed so as to enable the Assembly to deal with the
matter on the basis of the true situation and the real interest in
haritirne safety of the State concerned."

This submission asserts an authority in the Assembly to appraise
which nations are ship-owning nations and which are the largest
among them, the words "the largest ship-owningnations" providing
but a guide. The Assembly would be free "to look at the realities"
on the basis of "the true situation", whatever in its opinion and
that of its individual members these might be considered to be. It
would be bound by no ascertainable criteria. Its rnembers in casting
their votes would be entitled to have regard to any considerations
they might think relevant.

If Article 28(a) were intended to confer upon the Assembly such
an authority, enabling it to choose the eight largest ship-owning
nations, uncontrolled by any objective test of any kind, whetiler
it bc that of tonnage registration or ownership by nationals or
any other, the mandatory words "not less than eight shall be the
largest ship-owning nations" would be left without significance.
To givc to the Article such a construction would mean that the
structure built into the Article to ensure the predominance on
the Committee of "the" largest ship-owning nations in the ratio
of at least eight to six would be undermined and would collapse.
The Court is unable to accept an interpretation which would have
such a result.

III order to determine which nations are the largest ship-owning
nations, it is apparent that some basis of measurement must be
applied. The rationale of the situation is that when Article 28 (a)
speaks of "the largest ship-owning nations", it can only have in
mind a comparative size vis-à-vis other nations owners of tonnage.
There is no other practical means by which the size of ship-owning
nations may be measured. The largest ship-owning nations are to
be elected on the strength of their tonnage, the tonnage which is
owned by or belongs to them. The only question is in what sense
Article 28(a) contemplates it should be owned by or belong to them. (L'expression: pays ((qui possèdent lesflottes de commerce les
plus importantes ))n'a pas de sens précisou technique apparent ...
II faut en conclure que ces termes ont eu pour objet de permettre
à l'Assemblée,quand elle procède àl'élection, d'examiner les réalités
et de déterminer selon son jugement si les candidats à l'électionau
Comité dela Sécurité maritime peuvent ou non être légitimement
considéréscomme les pays ((qui possèdent lesflottes de commerce
les plus importantes ))au sens réelet substantiel ...ces mots, tout
en devant servir de directive à l'Assemblée,ont en mêmetemps étC
choisis de propos délibéré pour permettre à celle-cide traiter de la
question sur la base de la véritable situation et de l'intérêrtéelen
matière de sécuritémaritimede 1'Etaten question. »

Cette opinion attribue à l'Assembléele pouvoir d'apprécier quels
pays possèdent des flottes de commerce et quels sont ceux qui
possèdent les plus importantes, l'expression: pays (qui possèdent

les flottes de commerce les plus importantes )ne fournissant à cette
fin qu'une directive. L'Assemblée aurait la faculté ((d'examiner les
réalités ))sur la base de ((la véritable situation », quelle que puisse
être la manière dont l'Assemblée et chacun de ses membres les
envisagent.Ellene serait liéepar aucun critère vérifiable.En votant,
ses membres auraient le droit de prendre en considération tout
élémentqu'ils jugeraient pertinent.

Si l'article 28 a) avait pour objet de conférer à l'Assemblée un
tel pouvoir lui permettant de choisir les huit pays possédant les
flottes de commerce les plus importantes sans êtreliéeparun critère
objectif quelconque, qu'il s'agît du tonnage de jauge immatriculé,
de la propriété appartenant aux ressortissants ou de tout autre
critère, les termes impératifs ((Huit au moins de ces pays doivent
êtreceux qui possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus importantes n

n'auraient plus aucune signification. Si l'on interprétait l'article de
cette manière, la structure établie par l'article pour assurer la
prédominance au Comité de ((ceux 1)qui possèdent les flottes de
commerce les plus importantes dans le rapport d'au moins huit à
six serait ébranléeet s'effondrerait. La Cour ne peut souscrire à
une interprétation qui conduirait à ce résultat.

Il est évident qu'en vue de déterminer les pays qui possèdent les
flottes de commerce les plus importantes il faut se référer à quelque
étalon de mesure. La raison en est que, lorsque l'article 28 a) fait
état des pays ((qui possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus
importantes »,il ne se peut agir que de leur importance par rapport
aux autres pays possesseurs de tonnage. Il n'existe pas d'autre
méthode pratique pour mesurer l'importance de la flotte de com-

merce dechaque pays. Les paysqui possèdent les flottes de commerce
les plus importantes doivent êtreélus en raison du tonnage de leur
flotte, du tonnage qui leur appartient. La seule question est de
savoir en quel sens l'article 28 a) envisage que ce tonnage leur
appartienne. MARITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)
167
A general opinion, shared by the Court, is that it is not possible
to contend that the words "ship-owning nations" in Article 28 (a)
mean that the ships have to be owned by the State itself.

There appear to be but two meanings which could demand
serious consideration: either the words refer to the tonnage bene-
ficially owned by the nationals of a State orthey refer to the regis-
tered tonnage of a flag State regardless of its private or State
ownership.
Liberia and Panama, supported by other States, have contended
that the sole test is registered tonnage. On the other hand, it has
been submitted by certain States that the proper interpretation
of the Article requires that ships should belong to nationals of the

State whose flag they fly. This submission was rather concretely
expressed by the Government of Norway which suggested using
the flag-tonnage as a point of departure, reducing this amount
by the amount of tonnage not owned by nationals of the flag State
and adding the tonnage which does belong to such nationals but is
registered under a different flag.

An examination of certain Articles of the Convention and the
actual practice which was followed in giving effect to them throws
some light on the Court's consideration of the question.
Article 60 providing for entry into force of the Convention, and
which follows the form to be found in a number of multilateral
treaties dealing with safety and working conditions at sea, States:

"The present Convention shall enter into force on the date when
21 States of which seven shall each have a total tonnage of not less
than ~,ooo,ooogross tons of shipping, have become parties to the
Convention in accordance with Article 57."
The required conditions having been fulfilled on 17 March 1958,

the Convention came into force on that day. As is stated by 1,egal
Counsel of the Vnited Kations in a letter of IO April 1959:
"In so far as concerns the requirement of Article 60 that seven
among the States becoming parties should 'each have a total
tonnage' of the stated amount, no question was raised, and no
consideration was given, as to whether the total tonnage figure
of any State then a party, as indicated by Lloyd's Register, should
be altered for any reason bearing upon the ownership of siich
tonnage."

Article 60 has a special significancé. In the English text this
Article speaks of certain Statcs which ''ha~.c" a total tonnage,
whilst in -Article 28(a) the refvrencc is to nations "owning" ships.

21 Une opinion assez générale, à laquelle souscrit la Cour, est qu'il
n'est pas possible de dire que les termes de l'article 28 a) « pays
possédant des flottes de commerce 1) signifient que les navires
doivent êtrela propriété de 1'Etat lui-même.
Il semble n'y avoir que deux significations qui appellent un
examen sérieux: ou bien l'expressio? vise le tonnage quiappartient

réellement aux ressort~ssants d'un Etat, ou bien elle vise le tonnage
immatriculé dans J'Etat du pavillon, qu'il appartienne à des
particuliers ou à 1'Etat.
Le Libéria et le Panama, appuyés par d'autres États, ont affirmé
que le seul critère est le tonnage de jauge immatriculé. Certains
États au contraire ont soutenu que la véritable interprétation de
l'article exige que les navires appartiennent à des ressortissants de

1'Etat dont ils battent pavillon. Cette opinion a étéexprimée de
façon assez concrète par le Gouvernement norvégien qui a suggéré,
cn prenant pour point de départ le tonnage par pavillon, d'en
déduire le tonnage des navires qui n'appartiennent pas aux ressor-
tissants de chaque Etat de pavillon et d'y ajouter le tonnage
appartenant auxdits ressortissants mais immatriculé sous un
autre pavillon.
::c
* %

L'examen de certains articles de la Convention et la pratique
effectivement suivie dans leur application apportent quelque
lumière à l'étude de cette question par la Cour.
L'article 60 concerne l'entrée en vigueur de la Convention;
\'inspirant de la formule qu'on trouve dans un certainnombre de
conventions multilatérales traitant de la sécuritéet des conditions
de travail en mer, il dispose:

((La présente Conventionentrera en vigueur lorsque vingt et une
nations, dont sept devront posséderun tonnage global au moins égal
à un million de tonneaux de jauge brute, y auront adhéré,confor-
mémentaux dispositions de l'article 57. ))

Ces conditions ayant étéremplies le 17 mars 19j8, la Convention
est entrée en vigueur à ce jour. Comme l'a exposé le conseiller
juridique des Sations Vnies dans une lettre du 10 avril1959:
((En ce qui concernc la condition requise par l'article 60 que sept
des nations ayant adhéré à la Convention devraient c(posséder
chacune iin tonnage global 1)d'un montant dérerminé, aucune ques-
tion n'a &tésoulevéeni examinéequant au point de savoir s'il y
aurait lieu de modifier, pour une raison quelconque ayant traità la
propriété dece tonnage, les chiffres indiquéspar le Lloyd'sRegister
pour le tonnage global d'aucun des Etats alors parties à la Con-
vention. ))

L'article 60 est particulièrement important. Le texte anglais de
cet article se réfère à certains Etats qui ((ont » (have) un tonnage
g!obal, alors qu'à l'article 28 a) on se réfère aux nations ccquiIn the French and Spanish texts however, which texts are equally
authentic, the same verb "to own" or "to possess" is used in each

Article. There can be, and indeed there is, no dispute that whether
the reference in Article 60 is to States which "have" the specified
tonnage-as in the English text-or whether it is to States which
"own" or "possess" that specified tonnage-as in the French and
Spanish texts-that reference is to registered tonnage and regis-
tered tonnage only and provides an automatic criterion to deter-
mine the point of time at which the Convention comes into force.

The practice followed by the Assembly in relation to other
Articles reveals the reliance placed upon registered tonnage.
Thus in implementing Article 17 (c) of the Convention, which
provides that two members of the Council "shall be elected by the
Assembly from among the goverhments of nations having a sub-

stantial interest in providing international shipping servicesJ',
the Assembly elected Japan and Italy. This was done after it had
been reported to the Assembly that the representatives of the
Members of the Council who were required under the terms of
Article 18 to make their recommendation to the Assembly had

"therefore examined the claims of countries having a substantial
interest in providing international shipping services. They did not
feel that they should propose to the Assembly a long list of can-
their tonnage; they recommended the electionthofJapan (with ton-f
nage of about 5,500,ooo tons) and of Italy (with a tonnage of
nearly~,OOO,OOO)."

The tonnages mentioned are those recorded in the list of the Sec-
retary-General of the Organization, which was before the Assembly
in the election under Article 28 (a) and which is none other than
a copy of Lloyd's Register of Shipping for 1958. The registered ton-
nages of the two countries were taken as the appropriate criterion,
there was no suggestion of any other. There were only two Members
to be elected under Article 17 (c)and there were only two recom-
mendations to the Assembly.
The apportionment of the expenses of the Organization amongst
its Members under the provisions of Article 41 of the Convention is
also significant. Under Resolution A.zo(1) adopted bythe Assembly
of the Organization on 19 January 1959, the assessment on each
Member State was principally "determined by its respective gross

registered tonnage as shown in the latest edition of Lloyd's Register
of Shifiping". Those States whose registered tonnages were the
largest paid the largest assessments.

Furthermore, the Assembly, when proceeding to elect the eight
largest ship-owning nations under Article 28 (a), took note of the
Working Paper prepared by the Secretary-General of the Organi-
22possèdent ))(owning) des navires. Mais, dans les textes français et

espagnol qui font égalementfoi,on emploielemêmeverbe (posséder ))
(#oseer) dans les deux articles. Soit que l'article 60 se réfèreaux
États qui «ont »un tonnage déterminé - comme dans le texte
anglais -, soit qu'il se réfèreaux Etats qui (possèdent »ce tonnage
déterminé - comme dans les textes français et espagnol -, il ne
saurait faire de doute et il n'est pas contesté qu'il s'agit du tonnage
immatriculé et du tonnage immatriculé seul et que le texte fournit
un critère automatique pour déterminer la date d'entréeen vigueur
de la Convention.

La pratique suivie par l'Assemblée à propos d'autres articles
montre qu'on s'est fondésur le tonnage de jauge immatriculé.
C'est ainsi qu'en appliquant l'article 17 c) de la Convention, qui
prescrit que deux membres du Conseil « sont éluspar .l'Assemblée
parmi les gouvernements des pays qui ont un intérêtnotable à
fournir des services internationaux de navigation maritime »,
l'Assembléea élule Japon et l'Italie. Avant cette élection,1'Assem-
bléea étéinformée que les représentants des membres du Conseil
appelés à faire les recommandations à l'Assembléeaux termes de
l'article18 :

((ont examinéles justifications présentéepsar les pays qui ont un
intérêtnotable à fournir des services internationaux de navigation
maritime. Ils n'ont pas cru devoir proposeràl'Assemblée toute une
liste de candidaturescar deux pays dépassentnettement les autres
par l'importance de leur tonnage. Ils recommandent l'élection du
Japon (dont le tonnage est d'environ5 500oootonnes) et de l'Italie
(dont le tonnage s'élèveàprès de5 ooo ooode tonnes). ))

Les tonnages mentionnés sont ceux qui figurent dans le tableau
du Secrétaire généralde l'organisation produit à l'Assembléepour
l'élection tenue aux termes de l'article 28 a), et qui n'est qu'une
copie des tableaux du Lloyd's Register of ShipPing pour 1958. Le

tonnage immatriculé de ces deux pays a étéconsidéré comme le
critère approprié et il n'en a pas étéproposéd'autre. Il ne s'agissait
d'élireque deux membres aux termes de l'article 17 c) et il n'y a
eu que deux pays recommandés à l'Assemblée.
La répartition des dépenses de l'organisation entre ses Membres
en vertu des dispositions de l'article 41 de la Convention est égale-
ment significative. Aux termes de la résolution A.20(1) adoptée par
l'Assembléede l'Organisation le 19 janvier 1959, la contribution de
chaque État membre est déterminée principalement ((en fonction

du tonnage brut de ses navires immatriculés selon la dernière
livraison du Lloyd's Register of Shipping ». Les États dont les
tonnages immatriculés sont les plus élevés paientles contributions
les plus importantes.
Au surplus, lorsqu'elle a procédé à l'élection des huit pays
possédant les flottes de commerce les plus importantes aux termes
de l'article 28 a), l'Assemblée a tenu compte d'un document de 11.4RITI?rIE SAFETY CO?rI?rIITT(OPIXION OF 8 VI 60)
169
zation which embodies a list of the ship-owning nations with their
respective registered tonnages formulated on the basis of Lloyd's
Register. Liberia and Panama, countries which were among the
eight largest on the list, were not elected by the Assembly but
countries which ranked ninth and tenth were elected.

This reliance upon registered tonnage in giving effect to different
provisions of the Convention and the comparison which has been
made of the texts of Articles 60 and 28 (a), persuade the Court to
the view that it is unlikely that when the latter -4rticle was drafted
and incorporated into the Convention it was contemplated that
any criterion other than registered tonnage should determine
which were the largest ship-owning nations. In particular it is
unlikely that it was contemplated that the test should be the
nationality of stock-holders and of others having beneficial inter-
ests in every merchant ship; facts which would be difficult to
catalogue, to ascertain and to measure. To take into account
the names and nationalities of the owners or shareholders of ship-
ping companies would, to adopt the words of the representative

of the Cnited Kingdom during the debate which preceded the
election, "introduce an unnecessarily complicated criterion".
Such a method of evaluating the ship-owning rank of a country is
ncither practical nor certain. Moreover, it finds no basis in inter-
national practice, the language of international jurisprudence, in
m~ritimc terminology, in international conventions dealing with
safzty at sea or in the practice followed by the Organization itself
in carrying out the Convention. On the other hand, the criterion
of registered tonnagc is practical, certain ancl capable of easy
application.

Moreover, the test of registered tonnage is that which is most
consonant with international practice and with maritime usage.
Article 28 (a) was drawn up by maritime experts who might
reasonably be expected to have been acquainted with previous and
existing conventions concerned with shipping and dealing with
safety at sea and allied subjects. In such conventions a ship has
commonly been considered as belonging to a State if it is registered
by that State.
The Load Line Convention of 1930 affords a suitable example.
Article 3 thereof provides :

"(a) a ship is regarded as belonging to a country ifit is registered
by the Government of that country;
(b) the expression 'Administration' means the Government of the
the country to which the ship helongs...".travail établi par le Secrétaire généralde l'organisation et donnant

d'après le Lloyd's Registerla liste des pays qui possèdent des flottes
de commerce avec leur tonnage immatriculé. L'Assemblée n'a élu
ni le Libéria ni le Panama, pays figurant parmi les huit premiers
de la liste, mais elle a élu lespays qui venaient au neuvième et au
dixième rang.
Cet emploi du critère du tonnage iinmatriculé dans l'application
de différentes dispositions de la Convention et la comparaison faite
plus haut entre les textes des articles 60 et zô a) amènent la Cour
à considérer comme improbable que l'on ait envisagé, lors de la
rédaction de l'article 28 al et de son incornoration dans la Convln-

tion, qu'il y eût un critère autre que le tonnage immatriculé pour
déterminer les pays possédant les flottes de commerce les plus
importantes. En particulier, il est improbable que l'on ait envisagé
que le critère dût êtrela nationalité des actionnaires ou de telles
autres personnes ayant réellement la propriété de tout navire de
commerce; il s'agit là de faits difficiles à cataloguer,à vérifier et à
mesurer. Pour reprendre les termes dont s'est servi le représentant
du Royaume-Uni au cours des débats qui ont précédé l'élection,
faire intervenir la question du nom et de la nationalité des proprié-
taires ou des actionnaires des compagnies de navigation introdui-

rait un critère inutdement compliqué )I. pareille méthode pour
apprécier le rang d'une nation possédant une flotte de commerce
n'est ni sûre ni pratique. .4u surplus elle ne trouve aucun fondement
dans la pratique internationale, ni dans la jurisprudence et la
doctrine internationales, ni dans la terminologie maritime, ni dans
les conventions internationales traitant de la sécuritéen mer, ni
dans la pratique suivie par l'organisation elle-inêinepour appliquer
la Convention. Au contraire le critère du tonnage immatriculé est
pratique, certain et facilement applicable.

.4u surplus, le critère du tonnage immatriculé est le plus conforiile
à la pratique internationale et aux usages maritimes.
1,'articlc28 a) a étérédigépar des experts en matière nlaritime
qu'on peut raisonnablement supposer au courant des con\-entions
antérieures existantes se rapportant à l'armement et traitant de la
sécuritéen mer et de questions connexes. En de telles conventions,
un navire est communément considéré comme appartenant à un
Etat s'il y est immatriculé.

La Convention de 1930 sur les lignes de charge en fournit un
exemple topique. Elle dispose en son article 3:
«(a) Un navire est considérécomme appartenant à un pays s'il
est immatriculé par le gouvernement de ce pays;
(bj L'expression iladministration ))signifie le gou\rcr~iement du
pays auquel le navire appartient ..))

23 A similar provision was to be found in Article2of the Convention
for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1929.
Among other international conventions which acknowledge the
same principles are the Brussels Conventions of 1910 respecting
Collisions, and Assistance and Salvage at Sea;the Conventions for
the Safety of Life at Sea of 1914 and 1948, and the Convention for
Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, 1954. Numerous bi-
lateral treaties also give expression to it.

The Court is unable to accept the view that when the Article was
first drafted in 1946 and referred to "ship-owning nations" in the
same context in which it referred to "nations owning substantial
amounts of merchant shipping", the draftsmen were not speaking
of merchant shipping belonging to a country in the sense used in
international conventions concerned with safety at sea and cognate
matters from 1910 onwards. It would, in its view, be quite unlikely,

if the words "ship-owning nations" were intended to have any
different meaning, that no attempt would have been made to
indicate this. The absence of any discussion on their meaning as
the draft Article developed strongly suggests that there was no
doubt as to their meaning; that they referred to registered ship
tonnage. It is, indeed, not without significance that about the time
the draft Article was finally settled,loyd's Register for1948 listed
as belonging to the various countnes of the world the vessels
registered inthose countries and that under the heading "Countries
where owned" there were given the number and gross tonnage of
vessels which are the same as those registered under the flag of
each nation indicated.

The conclusion the Court reaches is that where in Article 28 (a)
"ship-owning nations" are referred to, the reference is solely to

registered tonnage. The largest ship-owning nations are the nations
having the largest registered ship tonnage.
The interpretation the Court gives to Article 28 (a) is consistent
with the general purpose of the Convention and the special func-
tions of the Maritime Safety Committee. The Organization estab-
lished by the Convention is a consultative one only, and the
Maritime Safety Committee is the body which has the duty to
consider matters within the scope of the Organization and of
recommending through the Council and the Assembly to Member
States, proposals for maritime regulation. In order effectively
to carry out these recommendations and to promote maritime
safety in its numerous and vaned aspects, the CO-operationofthose
States who exercise jurisdiction over a large portion of the world's

24 On trouvait une disposition semblable à l'article2 de la Conven-

tion de 1929 pour la sauvegarde de la vie humaine en mer.
Entre autres conventions internationales qui reconnaissent le
même principe, on peut citer les Conventions de Bruxelles de 1910
sur l'abordage et sur l'assistance et le sauvetage maritimes, les
Conventions de 1914 et de 1948 pour la sauvegarde de la vie humaine
en mer et la Convention de 1954 pour la prévention de la pollution
des eaux de la mer par les hydrocarbures. De nombreux traités
bilatéraux s'expriment de même.
La Cour ne peut accepter l'opinion d'après laquelle, lors de la
première rédaction de l'article en 1946, quand ses rédacteurs ont

fait mention des pays ((qui possèdent des mannes de commprce ))
dans le mêmecontexte que les pays (cqui possèdent un nombre
considérable de navires de commerce », ils ne parlaient pas des
navires de commerce appartenant à un pays dans le sens employé
par les conventions internationales qui depuis 1910 visent la
sécuritéen mer et les questions qui s'y rapportent. De l'avis de la
Cour, il est tout à fait improbable, si l'expression (pays possédant
des marines de commerce 1)avait étéentenduedans un sensdifférent,
qu'on n'eût pas tenté de l'indiquer. L'absence de toute discussion

sur la signification de cette expression à mesure que progressait la
rédaction du projet d'article tend nettement à indiquer que son sens
ne faisait aucun doute; qu'elle visait le tonnage immatriculé. 11
n'est certes pas sans signification qu'à peu près à l'époque où le
projet d'article a étédéfinitivement établi les tableaux du Lloyd's
Register pour 1948 indiquaient comme appartenant aux différents
pays du monde les navires immatriculés dans ces pays et que, sous
la rubrique ((Coztntries where owfzed », figuraient un nombre de
navires et un tonnage de jauge brute qui étaient précisément le
nombre et le tonnage immatriculés sous le pavillon de chaque pays

indiqué. *-
* *

La Cour conclut que, lorsque l'article 28 a) fait état des ((pays
possédant des flottes de commerce n,cela vise uniquement le tonnage
immatriculé. Les pays qui possèdent les flottes de commerce les plus
importantes sont ceux qui ont immatriculé les plus forts tonnages.
L'internrétation de l'article28 a) donnéeDar la Cour est conforme
au but général de la Convention et aux fonctions spéciales du

Comité de la Sécurité maritime. L'Organisation établie par la
Convention n'a qu'un rôle consultatif et le Comité de la Sécurité
maritime est l'organe qui a le devoir d'examiner les quesfions
relevant du domaine de l'Organisation et de recommander aux Etats
membres, par l'intermédiaire du Conseil et de l'Assemblée, des
propositions de règlements de sécurité.Pour appliquer efficacement
ces recommandations et développer la sécurité maritime sous ses
aspects nombreux et variés, il est essentiel d'obtenir laoopératioii
+s Etats qui exercent leur juridiction sur une grande partie duexisting tonnage is essential. The Court cannot subscribe to an
interpretation of "largest ship-owning nations" in Article 28 (a)
which is out of harmony with the purposes of the Convention and
which would empower the Assembly to refuse Membership of the
Maritime Safety Committee to a State, regardless of the fact that
it ranks among the first eight in terms of registered tonnage.

It was contended in the course of the arguments that the Assem-
bly, in assessing the size, in relation to ship-owning, of each country,
was entitled to take into consideration the notion of a genuine
link which it was claimed should exist between ships and the coun-
tries in which they are registered. Articl5 of the unratified Geneva
Convention on the High Seas of 1958 was invoked in support of
this contention. That Article itself provides:

"Each State shallfixthe conditions forthe granof its nationality
to ships, for the registration of ships in its territory, and for the
right to flyits flag."

The Court having reached the conclusion that the determination
of the largest ship-owning nations depends solely upon the tonnage
registered in the countries in question, any further examination of
the'contention based on a genuine link is irrelevant for the purpose
of answering the question which has been submitted to the Court
for an advisory opinion.
The Assembly elected to the Committee neither Liberia nor
Panama, in spite of the fact that, on the basis of registered tonnage,
these two States were included among the eight largest ship-

owning nations. By so doing the Assembly failed to comply with
Article 28 (a) of the Convention which, as the Court has established,
must be interpreted as requiring the determination of the largest
ship-owning nations to be made solely on the basis of registered
tonnage.

For these reasons,

by nine votes to five,

that the Maritime Safety Committee of the Inter-Governmental
Maritime Consultative Organization, which was elected on 15 Janu-
ary 1959, is not constituted in accordance with the Convention for
the Establishment of the Organization.

Done in English and in French, the English text being authori-
tative, at the Peace Palace, The Hague, thiseighthday ofJune, one
thousand nine hundred and sixty, in two copies, one of which will
25tonnage mondial existant. La Cour ne saurait souscrire à une inter-
prétation des termesde l'article 28 a)« pays qui possèdent les flottes
de commerce les plus importantes n qui ne serait pas en harmonie
avec les buts de 1%Convention et qui permettrait à l'Assembléede
refuser d'élireun,Etat au Comitéde la Sécuritémaritime sans égard

au fait que cet Etat est l'un des huit premiers par le tonnage im-
matriculé.
Il a étéaffirmé au cours des débats qu'en vue d'apprécier
l'importance de la flotte de commerce de chaque pays l'Assemblée
était autoriséeà prendre en considérationla notion du lien substan-
tiel que l'on prétend devoir exister entre les navires et le pays où ils
sont immatriculés. L'article 5 de la Convention non ratifiée de
Genève de 1958 sur la haute mer a étéinvoqué à l'appui de cette
affirmation. Ledit article dispose:

«Chaque État fixelesconditions auxquelles il accordesa nationa-
lité aux navires ainsi que les conditions d'immatriculation et du
droit de battre son pavillon.))

La Cour étant parvenue à la conclusion que la détermination des
pays possédant les flottes de commerce les plus importantes relève
uniquement du tonnage immatriculé dans ces pays, il n'y a pas
lieu d'examiner plus avant la thèse du lien substantiel en vue de
répondre à la question soumise à la Cour pour avis consultatif.

L'Assemblée n'a élu au Comité ni le Libéria ni le Panama en
dépit du fait que, par l'importance de leur tonnage immatriculé,

ces deux Etats se rangeaient parmi les huit pays possédant les
flottes de commerce les plus importantes. Ce faisant, l'Assemblée
ne s'est pas conformée àl'article 28a) de la Convention qui, comme
la Cour l'a établi, doit s'interpréter comme prescrivant que la
détermination des pays qui possèdent les flottes de commerce les
plus importantes'doit se faire sur la seule base du tonnage immatri-
culé.

Par ces motifs,

par neuf voix contre cinq,

que le Comité de la Sécuritémaritime de l'organisation inter-
gouvernementale consultative de la Navigation maritime, élu le
15 janvier 1959, n'a pas été établiconformément à la Convention
portant création de l'organisation.

Fait en anglais et en français, le texte anglaisfaisant foi, au Palais
de la Paix, à La Haye, le huit juin mil neuf cent soixante, en deus
exemplaires, dont l'un restera déposéaux archives de la Cour et172 M=IRITIME SAFETY COMMITTEE (OPINION OF 8 VI 60)

be placed in the archives of the Court and the other transmitted
to the Secretary-General of the Inter-Governmental Maritime
Consultative Organization.

(Signed) Helge KLAESTAD,
President.

(Signed) G.~RSIER-COIGNET,
Deputy-Registrar.

President KLAESTAD and Judge MORENO QUIWTANA append to
the Opinion statements of their dissenting opinion.

(Initialled) H. K.

(Initialled) G.-C.dont l'autre sera transmis au Secrétaire généralde l'organisation
intergouvernementale consultativla Navigation maritime.

Le Président,
(Sigd) Helge KLAESTAD.

Le Greffier adjoint,

(Signé )ARXIER-COIGNET.

M. KLAESTAD P,résident,M.MOREN OLIST.-!Nj,uge, joignent
à l'avis les exposésde leur opinion dissidente.

(ParaphéH. K.

(Paraphé)G.-C.

Document file FR
Document Long Title

Advisory Opinion of 8 June 1960

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